History
The Kingdom of Zulu, forged by a man known as Shaka Zulu, was founded in a period of monumental change in southern Africa. In 1652, the Dutch founded Capetown, which soon became the site of a thriving slave trade. The land, and its people, were increasingly exploited by the Dutch and later the British, who assumed full control of Capetown by 1806.
Despite their advance, European colonists still held only nominal authority in parts of the region. Local politics, warfare, and family life continued mostly uninterrupted for many people. The Zulu tribe, for example, rose to power after the decline of the Mthethwa Empire in 1820. Their leader, Sigidi kaSenzangakhona, commonly known as Shaka, was a fierce warrior and brilliant commander. His warriors were famed for their lack of fear in the face of death. The Zulu warriors were some of the most effective and disciplined fighting forces in history, and they quickly subdued the entirety of Natal in South Africa[1]. His brief but turbulent reign saw Shaka take on the British Empire near the height of its power, a conflict that would continue long after his death in 1828.[2]
This map shows the area of land in orange that Shaka controlled during its reign.
Courtesy of Discott. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Shaka's Empire map” by Discott is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
The colonies at this point were full of Afrikaans people, descendants of the original Dutch settlers. They spoke a variation of Dutch, also known as Boers. In 1820 British immigration increased rapidly, putting increased pressure on the Afrikaans, who chafed at British legal restrictions and liberal treatment of black South Africans. In 1835, 12,000 Afrikaans fled and started on the Great Trek to the High Vadal, which had been depopulated by Shaka’s conquests. However, after meeting violent resistance, they pressed on to the smaller British colony of Natal. There they attempted to negotiate with Dingaan, Shaka’s successor, only for their leader to be killed.
The remaining Afrikaans drew their wagons in a defensive circle at the Battle of Blood River and fended off the superior Zulu numbers thanks to firearms. After heavy Zulu casualties, they retreated, leaving the Afrikaans to settle in Natal by forcing out the British settlers and establishing the Natalia Republic[3]. The Republic suffered from poor leadership and poor relations with the Zulus, and in 1843 it was annexed by the British. Most of the Afrikaans living there chose to trek again, ending up in the Orange Free State in the Drakensberg mountains[4].
The Battle of Blood River, as imagined by a French artist.
Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
Battles
Isandlwana and Rorke’s Drift
The British had set up profitable sugar plantations in Natal, manned by exploited Indian workers, but grew increasingly nervous about the aggressive Kingdom of Zulu on their borders[5]. Sir Bartle Frere, the high commissioner of the Cape, issued an ultimatum to the Zulu people that he knew would be impossible to meet. The Zulu were, among other things, to dismantle their “military system” within 30 days or be attacked by the full might of the British military. As expected, the ultimatum was not met, and in January 1879, the British attacked Zululand with 1,200 men[6].
The commander Lord Chelmsford left half his force at an unfortified area in Isandlwana while he chased down a Zulu ibutho. These British troops had been fighting successfully in South Africa for years and were battle-hardened veterans. Accounts of them being unskilled or undertrained are inaccurate[7]. The Zulu force led by Chiefs Ntshingwayo and Mavunmengwana attacked and breached the British perimeter leading to brutal hide and seek fighting among the tents the British soldiers failed to drop. The Zulu’s expertise at close quarters combat and the British lack of organization resulted in the slaughter of the battalion[8]. The result of the battle shocked the world; it was inconceivable that a “primitive” force could defeat a western power, let alone wipe them out[9]. White stones were placed to mark where the British had fallen.
The white piles of stone were laid down to mark the sites where British soldiers died.
This video breaks down the battle at the site itself:
When Chelmsford had established his position, he had left 140 men to guard the crossing at Rorke’s Drift, a bridge across the Buffalo River and the gateway into British controlled Natal. After the disastrous defeat at Isandlwana, a few surviving stragglers retreated to Rorke’s Drift. The Garrison consisted of a garrison hospital, a handful of civilians, and about 100 soldiers. The commanding officers Lieutenant Chard of the royal engineers and Lieutenant Bromhead of the 24th took charge and hastily erected a barricade of grain ahead of the Zulu horde. The battle of Rorke’s drift lasted for over 10 hours as the British perimeter gradually crumbled to just over 500 ft. Despite overwhelming odds eventually, the Zulus retreated, the defense had cost just 10 British lives and earned 11 defenders the Victoria cross, the largest number of crosses ever given in a single engagement[10].
An imperialist depiction of the defense of Rorke's drift designed to paint the British troops in the best light.
Courtesy of Royal Collection of the United Kingdom. Public Domain.
Battle of Ulundi
Humiliated by his defeat, Lord Chelmsford rallied his forces and marched into Ndini, the heart of the Zulu Kingdom. There, with overwhelming forces and deliberate inevitability, he marched a large force of soldiers into the Zulu capital of Ulundi and burned it to the ground. This was followed by King Cetshwayo’s Capture and exile to Cape Town. The Kingdom of Zulu was no more.
The burning of Ulundi.
Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
Tactics
Shaka’s most famous tactic was the great Zulu horns, where the main force clashed with the enemy while two horns circled around their flanks[11]. All at once, the Zulu forces would converge, crushing the enemy on three sides. The horns were comprised of 3 parts: the chest, the horns, and the loins. The chest was comprised of eager warriors that couldn’t wait to fight the enemy; the horns were made of younger warriors that were faster on their feet, while the loins were made up of experienced veterans.
Weapons
The Zulu warriors were fierce fighters whose tools were specifically crafted to complement their fighting style and tactics. The ordinary soldier would carry a cowhide shield and a short thrusting spear called an iXhwa. Additionally, they could also use an isaGila, also called a knobkerrie, a heavy stick with a fist-sized head used similarly to a European mace[12].
The iXhwa is a short thrusting spear Shaka designed to replace ineffectual throwing spears. It is so named for the sound it makes as it enters and exits the body of an enemy. The spear excels at close-quarters fighting and can both stab and cut and proved instrumental to Shaka’s horn tactic[13]. Its construction also makes mass production relatively easy. Africans were among the first metal workers and had access to abundant ore; objects were either hot-forged by heating it up and bending it or cast by pouring molten metal into a cast[14]. It appears the Zulus smelted a mixture of hoes, spear, and bronze ornaments for high-ranking elders[15]. Artifacts are discovered and studied both in private collections, which tend to be biased towards spears and other weapons, especially after the battle of Isandlwana, and hordes or buried caches of metal tools accidentally discovered which present a more balanced view of precolonial Zulu metalworking[16].
At weddings, it was common for warriors from the two different families to spar with each other to get to know one another better. This is still practiced in some areas and gives a glimpse of how these warriors fought.
A Zulu warrior with his iXhwa.
Courtesy of New York Public Library. Public Domain.
The isaGila or knobkerrie is a club usually made of hardwood that, according to Professor Hlonipha Mokoena, an associate professor at Wits Institute for Social and Economic Research, is not actually a weapon used for war. It was designed as a status symbol and could be used to hunt small animals. While some Zulus did fight with them, that was not their primary purpose. The idea that they are brutal weapons designed to crush their enemy’s skull is a colonial fiction[17]. In addition to each knobkerrie being uniquely shaped and ornamented, some Zulus included animals in their design. The horse which is not indigenous to South Africa was especially prized to lend a sense of power and authority to the knobkerrie and its maker[18].
A "classic" Zulu knobkerrie.
Courtesy of Brooklyn Museum. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Brooklyn Museum 2006.67.25 Knobkierie Iwasa” by The Brooklyn Museum is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported license.
The Nguni shields used by the Zulu were very important both militarily and culturally. Made of wood and the hide form Nguni cattle, they identified which group the warrior belonged to. The cattle whose hide was used to make the shields were unique in the fact that their pattern was unique to each cattle and almost perfectly symmetrical. Additionally, the Nguni were well adapted to South Africa’s light and heat and provided meat and milk, making them extraordinarily valuable and central to Zulu culture[20].
The shields themselves were made of partially tanned leather with slits down the center, a sturdy pole was inserted through the slits and reinforced the center. The user was very agile as the shield was light and very mobile[21]. They were used offensively to hook behind an enemy’s shield and expose them to attack[22].
A group of Zulu soldiers with their spears and shields.
Courtesy of Ralph Watts, British Library. Public Domain.
This is a good breakdown of the tactics and strategies used in ritualistic stick fighting.
Armor
Traditional European metal armor did not exist in South Africa, the heat and weight would have made such armor or metal shields impractical. Instead, warriors entered battle in nothing more than their traditional clothes[23]. Traditional male Zulu clothing consists of a skirt comprised of the amaShoba, cow tails worn on the arms, and below the knees to give the appearance of greater bulk. The skirt also has a front end called aIsiNene, while the iBeshu in the back is a sheet of calfskin. Unmarried men have a skirt to their knees while married older Zulu have it down to their ankles and are permitted to wear a headband. Leopards are revered among the Zulu, and its skin is reserved only for the leaders, and even then, they may only wear a headband. The King, however, can wear as much as he likes[24].
An example of traditional Zulu clothes worn during a ritual dance.
Courtesy of Hein waschefort. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Zulu dancers” by Hein waschefort is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Traditionally, unmarried maidens wore only a grass skirt and allowed their hair to grow long, while engaged women had shorter hair and covered their breasts[25][26].
Specialty: Fighting prowess
In addition to being a fierce warrior and brilliant leader Shaka also innovated new tactics and strategies like retaining the throwing spear for close-quarters flanking action around the enemy[27]. He also restructured the army into organized regiments of 1000 soldiers called ibutho led by a commander whose men swore allegiance to the Zulu nation, and its King, not to their tribe. This was essential in creating a sense of group unity and greater allegiance. Each regiment was composed of unmarried 18-20-year-old men who formed tight bonds and lived in barracks; the hide pattern on their shields distinguished each unit. Additionally, his soldiers started out at a young age, often around 6, carrying water and following older relatives on campaigns till they were ready to fight themselves[28].
According to Joseph, a Zulu citizen and scholar I spoke with when I visited South Africa, formal weapons training would also start around this time with ritualized stick combat and continue until they achieved their first kill in combat called the washing of the spears after which they were also allowed to marry[29]. Joseph theorized that the ability to marry being tied to a warrior’s first kill could help explain the young warrior's exceptional ferocity and tenacity[30].
Shaka’s warriors were conditioned by making them run and train barefoot so their feet would be hardened; some regiments used thorns to encourage scar tissue to form on their feet[31]. An army of Zulus could cover 20 miles in a single day and still fight effectively at the end. This complimented Shaka’s need for a fast, mobile army to outmaneuver larger forces[32]. This training and conditioning produced one of the most effective fighting forces in history.
Works Cited
Footnotes
[1] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat.
[2] R. G. Grant.
[3] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat.
[4] “Orange Free State and Orange River Colony.”
[5] Big Think, A Brief History of South Africa, with Dave Steward.
[6] “Cetshwayo | Zulu King | Britannica.Com.”
[7] Joseph of Zululand, Jospeph’s Lecture of the Battle of isandlwana.
[8] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat.
[9] “Battle of Isandlwana.”
[10] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat.
[11] “The Zulu Buffalo Horns.”
[12] “Zulu Culture - Zulu Combat.”
[13] Marshall Davey, Paul Garner on The Zulu Stabbing Spear.
[14] “African Metalworking.”
[15] Maggs, “Metalwork from Iron Age Hoards as a Record of Metal Production in the Natal Region.”
[16] Maggs.
[17] “‘Knobkerrie’ More than Just a Weapon.”
[18] “‘Knobkerrie’ More than Just a Weapon.”
[19] “‘Knobkerrie’ More than Just a Weapon.”
[20] “Breeds - Nguni.”
[21] “Nguni Shields.”
[22] Sutherland and Canwell, The Zulu Kings and Their Armies.
[23] “Zulu Culture - Zulu Combat.”
[24] “Zulu Culture - Zulu Clothing.”
[25] “Zulu Culture - Zulu Clothing.”
[26] “Zulu Culture - Zulu Clothing.”
[27] Sahoboss, “Shaka Zulu.”
[28] “Zulu Impi.”
[29] Joseph of Zululand, Jospeph’s Lecture of the Battle of isandlwana.
[30] Joseph of Zululand.
[31] “Zulu Impi.”
[32] “Zulu Impi.”
Citations
Pitt Rivers Museum. “African Metalworking,” July 20, 2015. https://www.prm.ox.ac.uk/metalworking.html.
“Battle of Isandlwana.” Accessed May 22, 2018. https://www.britishbattles.com/zulu-war/battle-of-isandlwana/.
Big Think. A Brief History of South Africa, with Dave Steward. Accessed May 22, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RhhzVfeqINY&t=141s.
The Cattle Site. “Breeds - Nguni.” Accessed May 23, 2018. http://www.thecattlesite.com/breeds/beef/93/nguni/.
“Cetshwayo | Zulu King | Britannica.Com.” Accessed May 22, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Cetshwayo.
Joseph of Zululand. Jospeph’s Lecture of the Battle of isandlwana, n.d.
CapeTalk. “‘Knobkerrie’ More than Just a Weapon.” Accessed May 23, 2018. http://www.capetalk.co.za/articles/260937/knobkerrie-more-than-just-a-weapon.
Maggs, Tim. “Metalwork from Iron Age Hoards as a Record of Metal Production in the Natal Region.” The South African Archaeological Bulletin 46, no. 154 (1991): 131–36. https://doi.org/10.2307/3889092.
Marshall Davey. Paul Garner on The Zulu Stabbing Spear. Accessed May 23, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iXqHnEBNMoA.
“Nguni Shields.” Accessed May 23, 2018. http://web.prm.ox.ac.uk/Kent/shieweap/nguni.html.
“Orange Free State and Orange River Colony.” Accessed May 22, 2018. https://www.britishempire.co.uk/maproom/orange.htm.
R. G. Grant. Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat. Edited by David John. DK publishing, n.d.
sahoboss. “Shaka Zulu.” Text. South African History Online, February 17, 2011. http://www.sahistory.org.za/people/shaka-zulu.
Sutherland, Jonathan, and Diane Canwell. The Zulu Kings and Their Armies. Barnsley, South Yorkshire, England: Pen & Sword Military, 2004.
SafariKZN. “The Zulu Buffalo Horns,” April 7, 2007. http://safarikzn.com/the-zulu-buffalo-horns/.
“Zulu Culture - Zulu Clothing.” Accessed May 23, 2018. http://www.zulu-culture.co.za/zulu_clothing.php#.WwWiU-6UuYk.
“Zulu Culture - Zulu Combat.” Accessed May 23, 2018. http://www.zulu-culture.co.za/combat_zulu_culture.php#.WwWZ6O6UuYk.
“Zulu Impi.” Accessed May 22, 2018. http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/weapons_zulu_impi.html
