History
The Berbers, or Amazigh people, are an indigenous cultural group of North Africa. Their population exists in clusters from Morocco to Egypt, with a large concentration in the middle of the Sahara Desert straddling the borders of northern Niger, Tunisia, and Libya.[1]
Key: (Dark Blue) Tuaregs | (Orange) Saharian Berbers (Sanhaja, Mozabite people, Siwis) | (Green) Chaoui people | (Red) Kabyle people | (Light purple) Chenouas | (Yellow) Riffian people | (Purple) Zayanes (Middle-Atlas mountains Berbers, also called Amazighs in a specific sense or Brabers) | (Light Blue) Shilha people.
Courtesy of Rosso Robot. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Distributions of Berber people” by Rosso Robot is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
The Amazigh people are a large, non-homogenous cultural group that encompasses much of North Africa, with a shared language family and heritage. The Berber languages are believed to have spread out from the Nile Valley in Egypt around 2000 BCE as people moved to settle the land of North Africa. These are the people that the Greeks, Carthaginians, and Romans encountered when they made first contact with the African coastline. The Carthaginians maintained a military presence in a region called Mauretania from around the 6th century to the 3rd century BCE before being absorbed by the Roman territory of Numidia in 203 BCE.[2] Numidian horsemanship and breeding influenced Roman cavalry tactics and development, and Numidian cavalry generals like Maharbal under Hannibal proved a formidable foe to the empire.[3]
After the fall of Rome, Berber kingdoms remained mostly independent or under the Byzantine Empire until the rise of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries. The Islamic Empire suppressed Berber autonomy, religion, and customs, but it also turned their fighting prowess to its own ends. A coalition of tribes called the Almoravids conquered Morocco in 1054, western Algeria in 1092, and established Marrakech, a grand capital city, in central Morocco in 1062.[4] Under the reign of Ali ibn Yūsuf, the Muslim Berbers eventually took control of most of modern Spain. While the Almoravids attempted to hold the Iberian Peninsula, their rule was short-lived. After a surprise revolt, they were succeeded by another Berber dynasty, the Almohad Caliphate, in 1147.[5]
The Moorish army of Almohad king Umar al-Murtada and Christian allies, readying for battle in the city of Marrakech.
Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
The caliph Abū Yaʿqūb Yūsuf assumed power and forced the last Almoravid holdout of Sevilla (Seville) to surrender in 1172.[6] His successor, Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb al-Manṣūr, struggled to deal with rebellions on the eastern edge of his empire while fighting to regain territory in Spain. Despite a decisive victory at Alarcos in 1195, the Berbers suffered a devastating defeat at the battle of Las Navas de Tolosa by a Christian coalition from Leon, Castile, Navarre, and Aragon.[7] Retreating to northern Africa, the Almohads attempted to consolidate their territory against a new internal threat: the Marinid dynasty. The Marinids, after a string of victories, took Marrakech in 1269.[8]
The Islamization of the Berbers continued throughout this period. Arabic supplanted local dialects and writing in many regions, and Muslim warriors displaced Amazigh people from their traditional grazing pastures into the mountains and deserts. During the French invasion of Algeria and Morocco, French generals took advantage of the cultural split between Berber and Arab factions to sow dissent and internal division. Since the end of French colonialism in 1962, Berber cultures have attempted to reclaim their cultural identity. While they have struggled to gain political representation, they have also won several victories. For example, their languages has been recognized as a national language in Algeria.[9]
Battles
The Fall of Saragossa (Zaragoza)
The Almoravid Empire captured Saragossa in 1110. Alfonso VII, King of Galicia and Leon and Castile, stood in opposition. By 1135, he would control enough kingdoms to declare himself Emperor of Spain. But after the fall of Saragossa, political disputes prevented Alfonso from immediately counter-attacking. In 1118, the Council of Toulouse declared a crusade against the Muslims in Spain, giving Alfonso the support he needed to engage. Alfonso and the Christians swept through Spain, smashing Muslim resistance until they reached Saragossa and laid siege to it. The city finally fell in December. It was a massive blow to Islam on the Iberian Peninsula.[10] Not only was Saragossa a strategically important city, but its fall also signaled the weakness of the Almoravid Empire and opened the way for the Almohads to take over.
A view of the Cathedral-Basilica of Our Lady of the Pillar in Zaragoza.
Courtesy of Paulo Brandao. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Basilica del Pilar-sunset” by Paulo Brandao is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.
Victory at Alarcos
in 1195, Almohad caliph Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb formed an armistice with the European kings after defending the remaining Muslim holdings in Spain. At the end of the armistice, Alfonso VIII invaded the Berber city of Sevilla in southern Spain, prompting Abu to lead his armies north from Morocco. While Alfonso was able to surprise and ambush the Muslim advance guard, he severely underestimated the strength of the Muslim forces, leading to a catastrophic defeat for the Europeans. The Muslims easily took Sevilla and pursued Alfonso’s forces to the fortress of Alarcos, where they notched an easy victory. Alfonso and his remaining army fled to Toledo, while Abu returned to Sevilla amid great fanfare and celebration.[11]
The victory helped to establish Muslim power in the area. But the Almohad did not press their advantage or exploit their victory, which allowed the European kings time to regroup and plan.[12]
Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa
Alfonso VIII was so traumatized by his crushing defeat that he was unable to organize a counterattack. The archbishop of Toledo, Rodrigo Jiménez de Rada, took it upon himself to stir up religious outrage at such a decisive Muslim victory over Christians. Local garrisons began to travel to Toledo, and Pope Innocent III declared a crusade to take back Spain in 1212. Knights and other warriors flocked to Toledo, and the combined armies of Aragon, Castile, and Portugal marched to war.
Despite early victories, the non-Spanish soldiers were discouraged by the climate and returned home. Undaunted, the crusade’s leadership recruited Navarre and Alfonso’s forces to fill in the gaps. Almohad Caliph Muḥammad al-Nāṣir attempted to cut off the Christians on the flat plains of Las Navas de Tolosa, where their horses would be able to move more effectively. The Christians attempted to alter their route by using the high mountain passes of La Llosa. The passes were heavily guarded by Muslim forces, and the Christians would have been torn to shreds had a local shepherd not shown them an alternate route. Outflanked and ambushed, the Muslim forces suffered heavy losses and broke into a messy retreat before the Christian onslaught. Muslim control on the peninsula was greatly weakened through these key Christian victories and the collapse of the Almohad Empire.[13]
Tactics
Numidian cavalry, the Amazigh forces made famous under Hannibal during the Second Punic Wars, played a significant role in Hannibal’s army as scouts. Riders were so adept that they rode without saddles or bridles, using only a simple neck rope. This eliminated all excess weight and cut noise down to the horse’s movements and breathing. This gave scouts an enormous advantage in stealth and reconnaissance.[14] Their horses were so well trained the riders could lay them down flat in tall grass while they counted the enemies’ numbers, then stand up quickly to ride back to the main force.[15]
Here is a video demonstrating the phenomenal skill and training of the Numidian cavalry.
The speed and skill of the Numidian riders, who often rode without armor, made them the perfect harassing force. They would follow behind an army, swoop in, throw their javelins, then retreat before an effective counterattack could be launched. While this tactic was rarely decisive, it confused and demoralized the enemy, especially when carried on for miles.[16]
Under Islamic rule, Berber men were also pressed into service as foot soldiers and commanders. According to Islamic chroniclers, the Berber contingent outnumbered the Islamic faction, leading to a majority Berber army during the conquest of Spain.[17] The Muslims used a combination of skillful diplomacy and shock and awe tactics. If the city they invaded surrendered, swore allegiance, and agreed to pay tribute, then the city’s rulers and resources would remain untouched. Often, the only difference to the commoners was felt through taxes and religious restrictions. If their offer was denied, the Islamic armies made a point of burning churches, executing leaders, and sacking cities. The goal was the create such a state of fear that future cities would surrender rather than fight.[18]
A depiction of the star and crescent flag of early Islamic cavalry.
Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
Weapons
Since the Berber people spread across much of North Africa, the weapons they used varied by region. This section focuses on the Tuareg, one of the largest groups of Berbers and the masters of the Sahara before the invention of firearms.[19]
The Takoba is a straight, double-edged sword used by the Berber Tuaregs and tribes in the Sahel.[20] The crossguard is sometimes covered in leather or wood, and the swords are notable for their three fuller design.[21]
A man draws an ornamented Takoba. Notice the leather-covered cross guard and triple fuller on the blade.
Courtesy of Samata. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Samata ténue touareg” by Samata is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
A modern Takoba training sword.
Courtesy of Purpleheart Armory. All Rights Reserved.
The telek was a short dagger that could be strapped to the nondominant forearm. Like the takoba, the crossguard was usually covered in leather or wood. The scabbard came in many variations; some had simple ties while others had richly-embroidered arm sheathes to denote status and wealth.[22]
Armed Tuareg men depicted in the French book A Narrative of Travels in North Africa in the years 1818, 1819, and 1820, accompanied by Geographical Notices of Soudan and of the Course of the Niger by George Francis Lyon 1821. Both men carry spears, and the telek dagger attached to the left forearm, the man on the right (a noble) is also armed with the takoba sword.
Courtesy of George Francis Lyon. Public Domain.
Tuaregs in particular (and Berbers in general) used iron-tipped lances or short spears to fight, fend off wildlife, and protect their livestock.
The Tuaregs had a unique dual-wielding technique. A warrior used the spear or stick in the offhand while fighting with the sword in the dominant hand. The spear was used to deflect attacks and keep the opponent at bay while the sword was used to strike.[23]
Here is a video describing the spear and sword combination:
The agher was a shield about four feet high and made of hide that could cover the entire body.[24] A shield combined with a sword and spear were the foundation of the Tuareg armaments. Warriors were trained to ride camels for long distances and fight at close quarters, so the shield proved invaluable for protection both in the saddle and on foot. The lightweight shield could be stowed during long desert treks while remaining easily accessible should the need arise.
Tuareg warriors had an impressive ability to change levels. Most similar one-handed combative systems, like European saber and Filipino eskrima, traded blows at targets of a certain height; but in training, Tuareg combat dropped to fighting on the knees or striking specifically at lower targets.[25] This allows the warrior exceptional flexibility because they could fight at many various levels and could subsequently target a wider range of openings. Additionally, training and fighting usually occurred in the sand, which was constantly shifting and required exceptional footwork.
Fighting on sand combined with conditioning in the unrelenting heat of the Sahara made the Tuareg warriors exceptionally tough and formidable. Training usually began with sticks as substitutes for swords to show the students the basics of the fighting system. Once the stick and subsequently the sword was mastered, the shield would be incorporated into their training.[26]
Here is a wonderful video showing Tuaregs training in the desert.
Armor
While practically no scholarly information exists on pre-Islamic Berber armor, most Amazigh warriors likely fought in their everyday clothes and robes. Adapted for the heat and sun, these clothes kept them light and mobile.
Tariq ibn Ziyad, Berber Muslim and Umayyad general who led the conquest of Visigothic Hispania in 711, riding off to war dressed in lightweight robes.
Courtesy of Theodor Hosemann. Public Domain.
After their absorption into the Islamic Empire, Berbers would have gained access to Islamic Armor. Islamic armor was generally lighter and vented heat better than its heavier European counterparts, making it well adapted for fighting in a desert climate.[27] The armor usually consisted of a mail shirt with a breastplate made of overlapping scales of metal.
An example of typical Ottoman infantry armor.
Courtesy of Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Public Domain.
Detail of how the metal plates are interwoven into the chainmail.
Courtesy of Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Public Domain.
Specialty: Horsemanship
The Berbers were some of the most skilled riders in Northern Africa. The Numidian cavalry in Numidia helped shape the outcome of the second Punic wars while the Tuareg riders used camels to achieve mastery over the Sahara. The horse breed of choice was the Barb horse, renowned and coveted for its prodigious stamina and hardiness. Interestingly, they display tölt and pace gaits, both of which make for a very smooth ride.[28] Mounted Berber fighters were very effective in their regions.
This video shows the phenomenal control Tuareg riders have over their well-trained camel mounts.
Works Cited
Footnotes
[1] Robot, Deutsch.
[2] “Mauretania | Region, North Africa.”
[3] “Numidia | Ancient Region, Africa.”
[4] “Almoravids | Berber Confederation.”
[5] “Almoravids | Berber Confederation.”
[6] “Almohads | Berber Confederation.”
[7] “Almohads | Berber Confederation.”
[8] “Almohads | Berber Confederation.”
[9] “Berber | People.”
[10] Worthington, “Alfonso the Battler and Muslim Spain.”
[11] “Battle of Alarcos | European History.”
[12] “Spain - The Almoravids.”
[13] “Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa | Spanish History.”
[14] Benjamin Atkinson, Atkinson Action Horses - Hannibals Numidian Cavalry.
[15] Benjamin Atkinson.
[16] Rey, “Numidians In Ancient Times.”
[17] Tindle, “Iberian Uniqueness in the Arab Invasion of Spain.”
[18] “Shock and Awe”
[19] “Who Are the Tuareg? | Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World.”
[20] “Sahel | Region, Africa.”
[21] “The Tuareg | Swords and Knives | David Atkinson.”
[22] “Welcome to He-Artefakte, Africa, Ethnology, Tuareg Arms and -Knifes.”
[23] Da’Mon Stith, Tuareg Sword and Spear Concept.
[24] Da’Mon Stith.
[25] “The Tuareg: Nomads of the Sahara | Peabody Museum.”
[26] Da’Mon Stith, Sword of the Sahel Tuareg.
[27] Armor, “Islamic Arms and Armor | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.”
[28] “Arabian-Berber Horse.”
Citations
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Almohads | Berber Confederation.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almohads
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Almoravids | Berber Confederation.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Almoravids
“Arabian-Berber Horse.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://www.theequinest.com/breeds/arabian-berber/
Armor, Author: Department of Arms and. “Islamic Arms and Armor | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.” The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Accessed May 21, 2018. https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/isaa/hd_isaa.htm
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Battle of Alarcos | European History.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Alarcos
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa | Spanish History.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Las-Navas-de-Tolosa
Benjamin Atkinson. Atkinson Action Horses - Hannibals Numidian Cavalry. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ygW50bx6eSs
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Berber | People.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Berber
Da’Mon Stith. Sword of the Sahel Tuareg. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=J5MBpoLXK6E
———. Tuareg Sword and Spear Concept. Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wuJi2_3b5-g
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Mauretania | Region, North Africa.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mauretania-region-North-Africa
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Numidia | Ancient Region, Africa.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Numidia
Rey, Sola. “Numidians In Ancient Times.” Sola Rey (blog), February 21, 2017. http://solarey.net/numidians-ancient-times/
Robot, Rosso. Deutsch: Verbreitung Der Berber Im Westlichen Nordafrika. June 2, 2014. Own work, using base map by Eric Gaba (Sting - fr:Sting) model by Ayadho overview map by TUBS This map is the result from a map request to the Kartenwünsche in the Kartenwerkstatt. You can make a request for a new map to us as well. Deutsch | English | македонски | +/−. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Distributions_of_Berber_people-map.png
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Sahel | Region, Africa.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Sahel
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Spain - The Almoravids.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Spain
“Shock and Awe, Eighth-Century Style:[Br] The Muslim Conquest of Spain.” Intercollegiate Studies Institute: Educating for Liberty, March 2, 2016. https://home.isi.org/shock-and-awe-eighth-century-stylebr-muslim-conquest-spain
“The Tuareg | Swords and Knives | David Atkinson.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://atkinson-swords.com/peoples/the-tuareg.html
“The Tuareg: Nomads of the Sahara | Peabody Museum.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://www.peabody.harvard.edu/node/2248
Tindle, James. “Iberian Uniqueness in the Arab Invasion of Spain,” n.d., 16.
“Welcome to He-Artefakte, Africa, Ethnology, Tuareg Arms and -Knifes.” Accessed June 25, 2018. http://www.he-artefakte.de/Afrika/Ethnologie/Tuaregwaffen/TuaregwaffenE.html
“Who Are the Tuareg? | Art of Being Tuareg: Sahara Nomads in a Modern World.” Accessed June 25, 2018. https://africa.si.edu/exhibits/tuareg/who.html
Worthington, Daryl. “Alfonso the Battler and Muslim Spain.” New Historian (blog), December 17, 2014. https://www.newhistorian.com/alfonso-battler-muslim-spain/2447/
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