History
Precolumbian Mexican society was part of the technologically advanced and highly sophisticated Aztec Empire. The grand city of Teotihuacan was settled as early as 400 BCE and boasted several massive pyramids that served important religious functions. For unknown reasons, the city was abandoned around 750. [1] In 1519 Hernando Cortez of Spain landed in Mexico near the site of Veracruz. As Cortez and his men pushed further inland, the native Tlaxcalans attacked with overwhelming forces but were pushed back by the European’s firearms. After three battles in which the natives suffered catastrophic losses, they joined the Spaniards. He eventually reached Teotihuacan, now the capital of the Aztec empire, and was graciously received by the Emperor Montezuma. Cortez left his Lieutenant Pedro de Alvarado in charge of Tenochtitlan to go deal with a detachment of Spanish forces sent by Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar to arrest him for disobeying Diego's order to not explore Mexico. Cortez subdued the Spanish soldiers and recruited them to his cause and returned to Tenochtitlan. When he arrived, he discovered that Alvarado had massacred the Aztec nobles and incited a bloody revolt, pinning him inside a palace at the heart of the city. Cortez, determined to rescue him, decided to execute his rescue at night by crossing one of the bridges that linked the island city to the mainland. Aztecs in canoes spotted them and attacked them on the narrow bridge. Unable to maneuver or use their cannons or horses, hundreds of Spanish soldiers were struck down or drowned in the lake. Cortez and a few of his soldiers and native allies managed to escape. [2]
After withdrawing to Tlaxcala with his native Tlaxcalan allies to rest and recover from his losses, Cortez began preparing for the conquest of Tenochtitlan. He started by targeting the dissatisfied tributaries on the outskirts of Aztec influence and convincing them to join his cause to bring down the empire. Control of the central lake upon which Tenochtitlan floated was essential, Cortez ordered 13 small landing craft built. They were powered by sail and oar and had space for a single cannon mounted in the bow. The new Aztec Emperor Cuauhtemoc knowing a Spanish counter-attack, was imminent was busy preparing his own defenses. In May 1521, Spanish forces destroyed the war canoes and closed on the great city. However, when they made landfall, they met fierce resistance and were forced back over the causeways, which the Aztecs promptly destroyed. The next morning the Spanish allies rebuilt the bridges, and the fighting resumed, once the Spanish had control of a street they razed it to the ground, destroying cover and supplies before retreating back over the bridges which the Aztecs again destroyed, only for them to be rebuilt again and the cycle to repeat the next morning. By July, most of the city was in ruins, and the population was slowly dying of starvation and disease. The defenders exemplified tremendous courage in the face of certain death and the collapse of their civilization. By August, the Spaniards finally overran the city and slaughtered the remaining defenders. The Emperor was captured and killed while fleeing across a bridge. The Empire was no more. [3]
Cortez then set up shop in the ruins of Teotihuacan and, by 1525, had subjugated the rest of the peninsula with the exception of the Yucatan peninsula. [4]
A view from the top of the pyramid of the sun in Teotihuacan with the temple of the moon visible to the right.
Courtesy of Gorgo. Public Domain.
In 1820 revolutionaries in Spain had forced the monarchy to adopt a liberal constitution. Conservatives in Mexico were alarmed at the revolutionary and liberal tendencies and decided Mexico should be independent to preserve its conservatism. Conservative leaders rallied and united the country in independence from Spain while still subjugating themselves to the rule of a Spanish prince, or locally elected Emperor if no prince could be found. In one of the great ironies of history, conservative Mexicans pushed for the signing of the Treaty of Córdoba on August 24, 1821, renaming the nation Mexico and declaring their independence from a temporarily liberal Spain. [5]
The land controlled by Mexico, 1821.
Courtesy of Hpav7. Public Domain.
By the 1830s, the United States’ manifest destiny was in full swing, and settlers were determined to see America stretch from sea to shining sea.
Battles
Texan Independence
By 1830 around 30,000 American settlers pushed west into the frontier had settled in modern-day Texas officially inside Mexico’s jurisdiction. The Mexican government saw this as a threat to their authority in the region and declared the settlements illegal and revoked the settler's rights. This sparked a revolution with the Americans claiming themselves to be the independent republic of Texas. Mexico responded with force, determined to route the settlers, the Texans pushed back, and forced the Mexican garrison out of San Antonio. One hundred eighty-four volunteer settlers, including American folk heroes Davy Crocket and James Bowie, took up defensive positions inside the ruins of the chapel of Mission San Antonio De Valero, also known as the Alamo.
On February 23ed 1836, President General Antonio López de Santa Anna himself led 2,000-6,000 Mexican troops over the Rio Grande and besieged the tiny church. The defenders fought for 13 days before finally being overrun by overwhelming numbers. Over 1000 Mexican troops had been killed or wounded, and Santa Anna ordered no prisoners to be taken. All 184 Texans were killed, only a few women and children were spared. Texan leader Sam Houston recovered from the setback a month later, defeating Santa Anna at San Jacinto and securing the independence of Texas. Across America, the defense of the Alimo was immortalized as the essence of American determination and heroic resistance.[6]
The Alamo.
Courtesy of Muhgcee. Public Domain.
The Veracruz Campaign
By 1845 Texas was ready to be annexed by the United States. President Polk sent envoys to Mexico to negotiate the disputed border with Texas as well as attempt to purchase New Mexico and California. The Mexicans were unamused and refused to negotiate with the party. In response, President Polk ordered the United States army into the disputed area, kicking off the Mexican American War. Americans swarmed over the Texan border chanting “Remember the Alamo,” and took the territories of New Mexico and California with little difficulty.
The commanding officer Zachary Taylor was reluctant to follow up on his victory by pushing further south. Flustered, Polk ordered General Winfield Scott to assault Mexico by sea and capture the critical port of Veracruz. The port was taken, and Scott won two important victories against Mexican commander Santa Anna at Cerro Gordo and Chapultepec. The capital Mexico City fell to American forces on September 14th, 1847. The treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo required that Santa Anna be exiled, and America gained about half of Mexico’s territory from Texas to California. While Americans remember it as the “Mexican-American War,” Mexicans remember it as the “War of the North American Invasion.”[7]
US troops marching on Monterrey during the Mexican-American War.
Courtesy of Adolphe Jean-Baptiste Bayot. Public Domain.
The French Expedition
After the disastrous defeat at the hands of the United States, Mexico’s economy was collapsing, and the country was consumed by a civil war between liberals and conservatives. The treasury was forced to cancel its payments on foreign debt. France, England, and Spain all launched expeditions to secure their assets. By 1862 all three had landed in Mexico, but England and Spain pulled out when the French Imperial forces under Napoleon's French empire made it clear they planned on conquering all of Mexico. The French offensive stalled at Puebla, where Mexican defenders had dug in. The French foolishly committed to a full-frontal assault against an entrenched enemy and lost nearly 1000 soldiers in a single battle. The Mexicans won a resounding victory that is still celebrated today as a national holiday. The French returned with 30,000 reinforcements and took Puebla then the capital soon after. Hapsburg Archduke Maximilian was crowned the new Emperor of Mexico. President Benito Juarez led his people in a guerrilla campaign against the French until the military pulled out in 1867 to preserve good relations with America. Maximilian was left behind, captured by revolutionaries, and promptly executed. [8]
The Mexican Revolution
In 1884 Porfirio Diaz, a Mexican general in the revolution against the French rose to power and served as a dictator for years. By 1910 Francisco Madero stood against him in the rigged elections. While Diaz achieved a predictable victory, Madero wrote from prison, calling for an armed uprising. The people rallied and freed Madero from jail then deposed Diaz in 1911. While Madero tried to rein in the revolutionary fervor, southern peasant leader, Emiliano Zapata demanded land reform and started his own revolution. Madero was assassinated by his own chief of staff, Victoriano Huerta. He faced a mess of revolutionary factions. Zapata in the south demanded land reform, Pacho Villa’s famous horseback ranch hands were tearing up the north, and a disenchanted member of the elite Venustiano Carranza was calling for Huerta’s head. With support from the US, Carranza overthrew Huerta in 1914. Carranza, now in power, moved to subdue Villa in the north and Zapata in the south. Villa attempted to incite a coup but was defeated and routed at Celeya in 1915 by Carranza’s brilliant military commander Alvaro Obregon. Zapata was killed in 1919, and Carranza assumed the presidency in 1920, having defeated all his enemies. His general Obregon rebelled a year later and killed Carranza, taking the presidency for himself and ushering in the middle class as the dominant power in Mexico. In 1923 he finally tracked down Villa and killed him, ending the last threat to his presidency. [9]
Tactics
During the Mexican American War, it was common for American soldiers to line up shoulder to shoulder and march with bayonets affixed until at the maximum effective range of their rifles, usually around 100 yards, then open fire with several volleys. Once they were out of ammunition or circumstances changed, they charged in with bayonets and fought at close quarters till one side broke. Additionally, artillery placement was crucial as it could soften a force up before infantry or cavalry had to fight. [10]
The Mexicans adopted guerilla warfare on horseback. Striking quickly and attempting to catch the Americans off guard. Unfortunately, the Americans were better equipped and better trained. Even when the Mexicans caught them off guard, the Americans quickly consolidated and counter-attacked. This was helped by the fact that the American military compensated for its volunteer infantry with a core of professional, highly trained officers who maintained strict discipline amongst their men. [11]
For example, in General Lane’s campaign, During the return march from Izúcar de Matamoros back to the main body of the American army, they were ambushed by 200 Mexican riders. Lane organized 200 Texan rangers in front and charged the Mexicans with such ferocity they were forced to retreat. When the Americans pursued, Mexican General Rea commander of 500 mounted troops counter-attacked. Lane led his men back to the main body and rallied the troops quickly enough to close ranks and rain fire down on the Mexicans who broke and retreated against the heavy assault[12]. Despite the Mexican’s home field advantage, local knowledge, and the element of surprise, American weapons and discipline won out.
During the Mexican Revolution, Pancho Villa became famous for his elite cavalry units called Los Dorados. They were revered for being able to fire accurately from the saddle at full gallop and carried a rifle, two pistols, and two good horses. They would sweep into Diaz’s forces and soften them up before the main army could charge in and finish them off[13].
Weapons
Mexican wars were fought at a time of rapid transition. In the early wars of 1830 and 1845, rifles were percussion cap meaning the firing pin was outside the barrel and had to be struck by a hammer that was manually recocked after each shot. In a muzzleloading rifle, each bullet was shoved down the barrel then fired. The advent of the breechloader meant the barrel dropped down, and the bullet could be inserted directly into the barrel, greatly increasing the rate of fire[14]. Breechloaders were especially popular in carbines because they were shorter and lighter and theoretically could be reloaded in the saddle. The Classic Colt revolver was the symbol of the west and used extensively on both sides of the Mexican American war. It was a six-shot cylinder pistol that needed to be manually recocked after each firing[15].
Colt Model 1851 Navy Percussion Revolver.
Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain.
Sabers used by cavalry were generally between 31 and 36 inches long and served as a reliable back up to unreliable firearm technology. [16]
Repeater rifles, rifles able to fire more than one shot at a time, appeared around 1855 and were made possible by a bullet that housed primer, charge, and slug in one package. Not only did this increase the rate of fire and ease of training, but it also led to the modern magazine and bolt action rifle[17]. The Mexican Mauser was a favorite of Pancho Villa and his men[18], while others in the Mexican army stayed with the Winchester carbines with their characteristic underlever[19].
General Emilio Campa (front center) and five bodyguards, all with Winchester rifles.
Courtesy of The Library of Congress. Public Domain.
This video shows how a Winchester Carbine works.
Pistols became self-loading and able to fire more rapidly as a magazine fed new rounds into the chamber, and the action of the slide recocked the hammer, preparing the gun to fire again. [20]
By the height of the Mexican revolution in 1915, modern weapons that were used on the western front were in use in Mexico. The Pattern 1914 was the official rifle for the US army and represented the evolution of the magazine and the bolt action system.
Pattern 1914 Enfield rifle.
Courtesy of Armémuseum (The Swedish Army Museum). Public Domain.
This video shows the evolution of rifle technology and the incorporation of the bolt action and magazine systems.
Armor
Body armor designed to counter bullets was not in widespread use till after the Second World war. Therefore Mexican soldiers fought in the clothes they always wore. Traditional men’s clothing was practical, a simple shirt, pants, boots, and a large hat called a sombrero. If the temperature dropped as it often did in the desert, a wool knee-length cape called a sarape could be worn. The clothing was well suited to the heat as it allowed moisture to wick while the hat kept the sun off the face and eyes.[21]
A group of Mexican rebels in traditional clothing.
Courtesy of The Library of Congress. Public Domain.
Specialty: Mounted Guerrilla Riders
The most effective component of the Mexican military was their mounted guerilla fighters, and no commander better exemplified this elite fighting force than Poncho Villa. He and his riders conducted guerilla attacks against dictator Porfirio Diaz repeatedly winning against superior forces. In 1913 he again led men against a corrupt and ineffective president this time with his hand-picked División del Norte (Division of the North). When Venustiano Carranza took power as president, Villa fled to the mountains in northern Mexico and attacked a United States Garrison stationed at Columbus, New Mexico killing 17 Americans. President Wilson ordered the United States Army to capture Villa, but due to Villa’s widespread popularity and intimate knowledge of the surrounding geography, the United States forces chased him for 11 months before being forced to withdraw empty-handed. [22]
Villa’s forces were famous for their ability to strike a large force at lightning speed, inflict horrendous damage, then disappear into the mountains without a trace.
Courtesy of The Library of Congress. Public Domain.
Works Cited
Footnotes
[1] “Teotihuacán | Location, Sites, Culture, & History.”
[2] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat.
[3] R. G. Grant.
[4] “Hernando Cortez.”
[5] “Mexico - Expansion of Spanish Rule.”
[6] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat.
[7] “Mexico - Expansion of Spanish Rule.”
[8] R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat.
[9] R. G. Grant.
[10] MOSELEY, “Evolution of the American Civil War Infantry Tactics.”
[11] Spahr, “Occupying For Peace, The U.S. Army In Mexico, 1846-1848.”
[12] Spahr.
[13] “Villa’s Military Tactics.”
[14] “How Guns Work.”
[15] DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
[16] DK Books.
[17] DK Books.
[18] “The Guns of Pancho Villa.”
[19] United States Library of Congress, Photograph Shows General Emilio Campa (Front Center) and Five Bodyguards, All with Rifles, during the Mexican Revolution.
[20] DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
[21] “History of Mexican Clothing.”
[22] “Pancho Villa | Mexican Revolutionary.”
Citations
DK Books. Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor. Edited by Paula Regan. DK Publishing, n.d.
“Hernando Cortez.” Accessed June 3, 2018. http://history-world.org/cortez.htm.
Historyplex. “History of Mexican Clothing: Traditional Styles and Materials.” Accessed June 3, 2018. https://historyplex.com/history-of-mexican-clothing.
The Loadout Room. “How Guns Work: Percussion Cap Firearms and You.” Accessed June 3, 2018. https://loadoutroom.com/thearmsguide/caplock-percussion-firearms-work/.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Mexico - Expansion of Spanish Rule.” Accessed June 2, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Mexico.
MOSELEY, THOMAS VERNON. “Evolution of the American Civil War Infantry Tactics.” Ph.D., The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, 1967. http://search.proquest.com/docview/302266689/citation/61503030974C48DCPQ/1.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Pancho Villa | Mexican Revolutionary.” Accessed June 3, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Pancho-Villa-Mexican-revolutionary.
R. G. Grant. Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat. Edited by David John. DK Publishing, n.d.
Spahr, Thomas W. “Occupying For Peace, The U.S. Army In Mexico, 1846-1848,” n.d., 351.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Teotihuacán | Location, Sites, Culture, & History.” Accessed June 2, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Teotihuacan.
Frontier Partisans. “The Guns of Pancho Villa,” May 13, 2015. https://frontierpartisans.com/3623/firearms-of-the-frontier-partisans-the-guns-of-pancho-villa/.
United States Library of Congress. Photograph Shows General Emilio Campa (Front Center) and Five Bodyguards, All with Rifles, during the Mexican Revolution. Copyrighted. J166903 U.S. Copyright Office 1912. +/− Restoration by trialsanderrors: General Emilio Campa and his bodyguards, Mexican War, ca. 1914. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:General_Emilio_Campa_and_his_bodyguards,_Mexican_War,_1912.jpg.
The Life of Pancho Villa and His Contributions to the Mexican Revolution. “Villa’s Military Tactics.” Accessed June 2, 2018. http://panchovillaslife.weebly.com/villas-military-tactics.html.
