History
The history of a unified Japan begins in the Yamato Court with the Emperor of Heaven at its center. In 592 CE, Prince Shōtoku, under Empress Suiko, championed Buddhist and Confucian ideals in Japan for the creation of an ideal government. In 603, he achieved a Seventeen-Article Constitution for the country that created twelve court ranks whose members were identified by colored caps and chosen for their merit and competence. He also opened relations with the Chinese Sui dynasty on equal terms, helping to build Chinese-style Buddhist temples in Japan and sending Japanese students to the mainland to learn from Chinese scholars.[1]
In 1185, Minamoto Yoritomo, a supremely skilled samurai, gained military hegemony over all of Japan and was named the first shogun. Due to the increasingly feudal nature of Japan, and individual clans holding more territory and power than the emperor, control of the military clans equated to political control of the country. This reduced the emperor to a figurehead backed by and giving legitimacy to the leading shogun clan. Political power and rule over Japan were passed down hereditarily through clans until another clan supplanted them. The Shogun period (1185 to 1868) was the height of the samurai warriors, who waged battles against other clans and vied for increased military and political power.
In 1333, the Kamakura Shogunate collapsed and was replaced with a second shogunate led by Ashikaga Takauji. While the shogun ruled in the imperial city of Kyōto, independent warlords called Shugo daimyo drew their personal income from taxing peasants on their land, making them less reliant upon—and more independent of—the shogun and emperor. This caused the influence and control of the Takauji Shogunate to be undermined.
In 1603, after thirty-five years of conquest over three generations, and subjugating over two hundred shogunates, the Tokugawa shogunate emerged as the undisputed masters of Japan. Their power secured, they moved their capital to modern-day Tokyo.[2] This ushered in the Edo period, an unprecedented time of peace and prosperity where Japanese culture flourished. Society reinforced its stratification of warriors wielding the most power, followed by farmers, then craftsmen, and finally merchants at the bottom of the class system.[3]
This brewed social tension until local domestic problems and fears of encroaching western powers sparked the Meiji Restoration in 1868. The Restoration abolished the shogun and the samurai class, returned political power to the emperor, and brought about the sweeping upheaval that led to the rapid modernization and westernization of Japan. The samurai code, bushido, was adopted to apply to the entire country and replaced samurai loyalty to his master with the citizen's loyalty and duty to the state and the emperor.[4] The goal was the create a stable state that was capable of interacting with western powers as equals to avoid the colonial subjugation forced on other nations such as China.[5]
Rule under the Meiji emperor continued, surviving several uprisings until political pressure forced the emperor to draft and approve a constitution; this created a bicameral parliament, called the Diet, which was elected by a limited voting population.[6]
During World War I, Japan honored an alliance with Britain and invaded the German colony of Tsingtao in China, chasing the German fleet out of the Pacific.[7] After the war, Japan was unable to achieve military self-sufficiency with the resources on their island, so it began an aggressive colonial expansion into the Pacific.
In 1931, Japan invaded Manchuria and, in 1937, launched a notably horrific invasion of China. In 1940, Japan signed a treaty with the Axis Powers and, in 1941, launched a surprise attack on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor. The intent was to cripple the United States' naval capacity in the Pacific and keep them out of Japanese affairs. Instead, several American carriers and destroyers escaped the attack, and America entered the Second World War. Japan moved fast, taking Guam and Wake Island in December and following up with the Philippines, Dutch East Indies, Hong Kong, Malaya, Singapore, and Burma in the first half of 1942.[8]
The turning point came when American naval forces defeated the Japanese navy at the Battle of Midway and halted the Japanese advance. This allowed Allied forces to retake the Philippines and Burma, and capture several strategically critical Japanese islands—from which to launch aerial bombing campaigns like the firebombing of Tokyo. The end of the war came on August 6, 1945, when the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima and the second on Nagasaki on August 9. Japan surrendered, formally and unconditionally, on August 14, 1945.[9]
Battles
Battle of Kurikara
In 1180, Japan was in the throes of the Gempei War, a brutal struggle between the Taira and Minamoto clans for control of Japan. The Taira clan had held control of the imperial capital for nearly thirty years; Minamoto Yoritomo leader of the Minamoto clan capitalized on the growing unrest to execute a revolt.[10]
After a string of victories, the Taira agreed to fight a fair and traditional battle. Minamoto agreed, despite heavily outnumbering his enemy, and the battle proceeded as planned. Once the ritual mounted archery duel began, the Minamoto attacked with the full strength of their army, pushing the confused Taira into a narrow valley. The Minamoto then tied lit torches to the horns of oxen and rushed them forward, stampeding and burning most of the Taira army. Simultaneously, mounted Minamoto archers ambushed them from the rear, killing survivors missed by the oxen. Minamoto rode to the capital and established the first shogun dynasty.[11]
First and Second Mongol Invasion
In 1274, the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan sent an expeditionary force of forty thousand Mongols aboard nine hundred Chinese ships to scout out Japan. They arrived in Hakata Bay and smashed through the defenses. This was the samurai's first military contact with foreigners, and the ritualistic warriors were wholly unprepared for the brutal effectiveness of mounted Mongol warriors, who had mastered the use of bows and gunpowder cannons. The Mongols took the coastline and seemed poised to take all of Japan; but this was only a scouting party—a fraction of the Mongol horde—and, after gathering their intelligence, they left.
In 1281, the Mongols returned with 150,000 soldiers across two fleets, once launched from China, the other from Korea. This time, the Japanese were ready; they had constructed a short wall around Hakata Bay. The first fleet from Korea arrived ahead of the Chinese fleet, and the samurai prevented them from establishing a foothold. The Korean fleet fell back to regroup with the Chinese, but both fleets got caught in a sudden typhoon, which destroyed them. The Japanese called the storm a Kamikaze, or divine wind, because it was believed that it had saved Japan.[12]
Tactics
Combat in Japan took place on several fronts, and not only on the battlefield. In feudal Japan, the ninja was a soldier trained in covert espionage and assassination. While ninjas could not leap a ten-foot wall or perform incredible acrobatics like in the movies, they did train extensively in infiltration and climbing. They could serve as advanced scouts and pinpoint assassins for their shogun master, and were an essential part of sophisticated shogun intelligence networks.[13]
Battles during the Shogun Era (1185-1863) were very ritualized and began by a samurai leader reciting poetry, then describing his long list of achievements and victories before selecting enemy soldiers for his army to fight. An enemy samurai would complete the same ritual, then both sides would exchange archery shots, aiming to miss, until they mounted their horses and continued the duel on horseback. Once both sides ran out of arrows and no one had been killed, each side would agree that their honor had been satisfied and would ride for home.[14]
Alternatively, samurai could engage in single combat with an enemy samurai, both using katanas, in front of their respective armies. Whoever triumphed would win the battle.[15] Strict rules of honorable combat applied. For example, the severed heads of enemy samurai were supposed to be returned to their forces on nailed boards. To defy tradition would be to soil one's victory.[16]
Samurai trained extensively with the sword, and their fighting styles were best suited against a single combatant because that was the type of fighting in which they were the most likely to use their sword. In open battle, samurai used bows and spears, only resorting to their katanas as a last resort.
Weapons
The apex soldier in Japan was unquestionably the samurai. Expertly trained and dedicated to the ideals of honor and glory, the samurai were an exceptional fighting force. Through legend and popular culture, the samurai have acquired a mystique and aura of invulnerability.
The Katana and Wakizashi
The most recognizable example of the samurai’s fame is the katana, a traditional Japanese two-handed sword primarily used for individual duels between two samurai.[17] Despite popular belief spawned by Hollywood and anime, the katana is not the greatest sword ever made; it cannot cut through plate armor, other swords, or tank barrels. It cannot move faster than can be defended, and it is not the lightest sword ever made. It is very good at cutting because that is what the blade geometry and handling characteristics were designed for—but so were the European saber, Egyptian khopesh, and Chinese dao. At the end of the day, the katana is just a sword, exceptionally well-suited to Japanese feudal warfare, and just like any other weapon, not optimized for use outside of the context for which it was developed.
A historical example of a katana and wakizashi.
Courtesy of Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Public Domain.
This video shows that, contrary to popular belief, the katana cannot simply cut through armor.
Renowned weapons scholar Matt Easton presents an interesting comparison between the katana and its European counterpart, the longsword.
The katana is famous for having supposed unrivaled strength due to the metal being folded over again and again during forging. While the metal is folded during forging, it was likely done to correct for poor quality steel; without the folding to add reinforcement and more evenly distribute carbon across the whole blade, the sword would likely be too brittle and shatter.[18] Spectrographic analysis shows an uneven distribution of carbon along the blade, specifically a higher concentration along the cutting edge. While this makes for a harder and theoretically sharper edge, it potentially weakens the sword overall.[19]
This video shows the entire process of forging a katana, using traditional tools.
In addition to the katana, the samurai carried a short sword called a wakizashi. It was customary for a samurai to leave their katana at the door when entering a building; however, he always kept his wakizashi on his person. Its most famous use was to commit ritual suicide, seppuku, in the event of dishonor.[20]
During open warfare, the samurai would use a bow or spear, or direct troops from a strategic position. While the katana held enormous cultural importance and symbolic significance, it was not the primary weapon used for open warfare, only for single duels.[21]
An exhibit of a fight between multiple samurai during a battle. Notice the use of polearms over swords.
Courtesy of Vokabre. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “A reenactment of samurai in battle” by Mikhail (Vokabre) Shcherbakov is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 2.0 Generic license.
The bow
The yumi is a traditional Japanese bow that is notable for its characteristic asymmetry and size. The Japanese bow is one of the largest in Asia, and it was used by samurai, either on foot or horseback, as one of the primary battle weapons.[22] Today, it is preserved in the martial art called Kyudo in which practitioners don traditional dress and practice the ritualized motions of shooting a bow.
Members of the Gotemba Kyudo Association demonstrate Kyudo or "the way of archery.".
Courtesy of Sgt. Ethan E. Rocke. Public Domain.
This video shows the tremendous ritual and spiritual focus involved in Kyudo, preserved in an unbroken lineage for hundreds of years.
Armor
Japanese armor is made of plates of metal or leather that are bound together with leather or silk. The armor is lightweight and mobile, while still protecting critical areas.
Detail of how individual lames make up the lamellar Japanese armor.
Chest armor made of over 500 scales.
Courtesy of Samuraiantiqueworld. “Nerigawa hon kozane maru dou” by Samuraiantiqueworld is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Additionally, higher-ranked samurai would ornament their armor, often with face shields, masks, and elaborate headdresses. The helmet was often designed for intimidation, featuring an imposing face mask and frightening decoration.[23]
An example of a complete gorget, mask, and helmet.
Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain.
Samurai wore their hair in a topknot called a Chomage and shaved the top of their heads in preparation for battle to reduce heat under their helmets.[24] The breastplate was a single garment of overlapping metal or leather plates that were bound together with silk. At the bottom, a skirt designed to protect the thighs was sewn into the breastplate to offer the most protection while still allowing unimpeded footwork. Made of hardened leather or metal, grieves protected the shins.[25] Arm and leg protection was also tied to the shoulders of the breastplate and consisted of characteristic interwoven slats that provided broad protection for the upper arms and forearms. Many sets of armor also incorporated mail.
Detail of the lamellar protection in the shoulder and skirt armor, as well as the mail integrated into the hands and gauntlets.
Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain.
After the Portuguese made contact with Japan and introduced firearms in 1543, Japanese armor smiths developed a new type of armor that prized mobility and protection. Allowing warriors to quickly enter and exit fighting while providing enough protection to defend against musket fire.[26]
This video from the Asian Art Museum discusses how Samurai armor changed throughout the centuries to reflect new realities of warfare.
A full set of traditional Samurai armor.
Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain.
Outside of the battlefield, samurai traditionally wore a silk kimono with their katana and wakizashi thrust through a purpose-made hole in the belt.
Specialties: Honor, Discipline, and
Training
Samurai training was intense; education began in childhood when the boy or girl entered a specific school or clan. They received physical training in fighting and swordsmanship.
Samurai trained in unarmed fighting, which formed the foundation for modern Japanese martial arts like jujitsu, judo, karate, and aikido.[27] Most of these arts were adopted from China then modified by the Japanese.[28] While these arts were not practical for the battlefield, the samurai studied them to gain martial skills. Even though kyuba no michi—"the way of the horse and bow"—was the primary method of warfare for the samurai, the sword was still emphasized and formed a significant part of the samurai's training.[29]
This painting shows a fully armed and armored samurai on horseback.
Courtesy of The Library of Congress. Public Domain.
This video explores the historical and cultural roots of kendo.
This video shows a modern-day grandmaster training the next generation of samurai.
Another essential aspect of Samurai training was lessons in philosophy, like Zen Buddhism and Confucianism. The warrior's code, called bushido, was the code that governed every aspect of the samurai's life—specifically around 1603, when it was infused with Confucian thought and idealized the perfect gentleman.[31]
The Bushido code consisted of eight commandments; justice or rectitude, courage, benevolence or mercy, politeness, honesty, honor, loyalty, and character or self-control.[32] Rectitude was an essential foundation of the samurai and is described as the following; "Rectitude is one's power to decide upon a course of conduct in accordance with reason, without wavering; to die when to die is right, to strike when to strike is right."[33]
Honor and loyalty played a foundational role in the samurai's conduct. Loyalty to one's master or lord was highly prized. Dishonor was so feared that a samurai would rather kill himself than be humiliated or live with the shame of dishonor.[34] Seppuku, or ritual suicide, was undertaken by samurai who were in danger of being dishonored or captured because, under bushido, it was preferable to die by one's own hand than face the shame of dishonor. Seppuku was performed by stabbing a wakizashi into the left side of the abdomen and drawing it to the right. It was considered the highest form of honor if the warrior could stab themselves again under the sternum and cut down across the wound, as it exemplified self-control, discipline, and commitment.[35] Women samurai also committed seppuku but slashed their throats instead of disemboweling themselves.
The Meiji restoration in the late 19th century formally abolished the samurai class but repurposed the Bushido philosophy. First, they applied it to every Japanese citizen and replaced loyalty to one's lord with loyalty to the emperor and state.[36] This led to a massive surge of nationalism and played a significant role in Japanese tenacity during World War II—most noticeably in the suicide pilots who deliberately targeted Allied ships and officers who committed suicide instead of risking capture by Allied forces.[37]
The USS Bunker Hill after being struck by a kamakazi pilot in World War II.
Courtesy of The U.S. Naval History and Heritage Command. Public Domain.
Works Cited
Footnotes
“Japan - Rise and Expansion of Yamato.”
“Daimyo | Japanese Social Class.”
Victoria and Albert Museum, “Historical Background.”
“The Modern Re-Invention of Bushido.”
“Meiji Restoration | Definition, History, & Facts.”
“Meiji Restoration | Definition, History, & Facts.”
Johnston, “Japan’s Little-Known, but Significant, Role in World War I.”
“World War II in the Pacific.”
“World War II in the Pacific.”
“Gempei War | Japanese History.”
“Samurai at War.”
R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat.
“The Ninja — Central Intelligence Agency.”
“Japanese Mounted Archery.”
R. G. Grant, Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Combat.
R. G. Grant.
DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
scholagladiatoria, Katana vs Longsword!!
“Metallurgical Examination of a Japenese Samuri Sword.”
“Metallurgical Examination of a Japenese Samuri Sword.”
DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
Deal, Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan.
“Japanese Mounted Archery.”
DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
“Japan: Memoirs of a Secret Empire . Samurai | PBS.”
DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
“Samurai Armor.”
“The History of Martial Arts in Japan.”
“The History of Martial Arts in Japan.”
Green and Svinth, Martial Arts of the World.
Green and Svinth.
“Bushidō | Japanese History.”
Clark, “The Bushido Code: The Eight Virtues of the Samurai.”
Clark.
“Seppuku -- Britannica Academic.”
“Seppuku -- Britannica Academic.”
“The Modern Re-Invention of Bushido.”
Citations
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Bushidō | Japanese History.” Accessed June 26, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Bushido.
Clark, Tim. “The Bushido Code: The Eight Virtues of the Samurai,” n.d., 6.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Daimyo | Japanese Social Class.” Accessed June 27, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/daimyo.
Deal, William E. Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan. Bridgewater, NJ: Distributed by Paw Prints/Baker & Taylor, 2010.
DK Books. Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor. Edited by Paula Regan. DK Publishing, n.d.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Gempei War | Japanese History.” Accessed June 27, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Gempei-War.
Green, Thomas A., and Joseph R. Svinth. Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation [2 Volumes]: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation. ABC-CLIO, 2010.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Japan - Rise and Expansion of Yamato.” Accessed June 27, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Japan.
“Japan: Memoirs of a Secret Empire . Samurai | PBS.” Accessed June 26, 2018. http://www.pbs.org/empires/japan/enteredo_8.html.
“Japanese Mounted Archery.” Accessed June 27, 2018. http://warfarehistorynetwork.com/daily/military-history/japanese-mounted-archery/.
Johnston, Eric. “Japan’s Little-Known, but Significant, Role in World War I.” The Japan Times Online, May 9, 2017. https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2017/05/09/national/history/japans-little-known-significant-role-world-war/.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Meiji Restoration | Definition, History, & Facts.” Accessed June 27, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Meiji-Restoration.
“Metallurgical Examination of a Japenese Samuri Sword.” Accessed June 26, 2018. http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/b962712.pdf.
R. G. Grant. Battle A Visual Journey Through 5,000 Years Of Comat. Edited by David John. DK Publishing, n.d.
Khan Academy. “Samurai Armor.” Accessed June 26, 2018. https://www.khanacademy.org/partner-content/asian-art-museum/aam-japan-topic/aam-japan/a/samurai-armor.
“Samurai at War.” Accessed June 27, 2018. http://www.historyoffighting.com/the-japanese-samurai-at-war.php.
scholagladiatoria. Katana vs Longsword! Accessed June 26, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W8a7gpoSPbY&t=671s.
“Seppuku -- Britannica Academic.” Accessed June 26, 2018. https://academic-eb-com.proxy.library.vcu.edu/levels/collegiate/article/seppuku/66797.
“The History of Martial Arts in Japan.” Accessed June 26, 2018. http://www.tokyoezine.com/2011/04/27/the-history-of-martial-arts-in-japan/.
“The Modern Re-Invention of Bushido.” Accessed June 26, 2018. http://www.columbia.edu/~hds2/chushinguranew/Bushido/reinvention.htm.
“The Ninja — Central Intelligence Agency.” Accessed June 27, 2018. https://www.cia.gov/library/center-for-the-study-of-intelligence/kent-csi/vol9no2/html/v09i2a06p_0001.htm.
Victoria and Albert Museum, Online Museum. “Historical Background: The Edo Period,” January 13, 2011. http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/t/the-edo-period-in-japanese-history/.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “World War II in the Pacific.” Accessed May 25, 2018. https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155.
