History
The Philippines is a large archipelago of Southeast Asia, bordering other nations like Vietnam, Indonesia, and China. Of its seven thousand islands, only about two thousand are inhabited. They are divided into three major regions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The capital city of Manila is located on Luzon, its largest island.[1]
A map of the Philippine islands with their major cities.
Courtesy of seav. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Island regions of the Philippines” by seav is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription (LCI), dated to around 900CE, marks the beginning of recorded history in the Philippines. It consists of ten lines etched into a copper plate that contains a script unique to the Philippines. Though the fragment is incomplete, it appears to be the acquittal of debt of someone in high office.[2]
The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription (LCI).
Courtesy of Nordenx. Public Domain.
Long before the colonial era, the people of the Philippines lived within highly advanced societies. Early explorers noted that the majority of the population were not only literate but proficient in several languages.[3] Art, culture, and agriculture flourished among the various city-states (called barangays) that ruled different islands.[4] The local people practiced shifting cultivation in the lowlands and complex terrace agriculture in the mountains of northern Luzon.[5] Due to their geography, the native Filipinos were expert maritime navigators who sailed well-made boats and used a device similar to a compass.[6] Additionally, they were accomplished warriors who wielded very high-quality swords and armor. They constructed fortresses and even developed the cannon decades before Europe.[7]
In 1521, Spanish explorer Ferdinand Magellan landed on the island of Cebu, named the islands the Philippines in honor of his monarch King Philip II, and then died exploring the nearby island of Mactan.[8] Philip II sent three more expeditions, dreaming of using the Philippines as a stepping stone to the rich islands of India; all three expeditions ended in disaster.[9] Finally, the king ordered Miguel López de Legazpi to establish a permanent settlement, which he achieved in Cebu in 1565. Using that port as a foothold, the Spanish founded the city of Manila in 1571 and conquered most of the coastal and inland lowlands from Luzon to northern Mindanao. Accompanied by soldiers, Spanish friars sought to convert the local population to Catholicism.[10]
In 1892, after nearly 300 years of Spanish rule, the Filipino population rose up and fought for independence in the Philippine Revolution. The United States provided aid during the Spanish-American War, but took control of the colony for themselves, leading to the Philippine-American War. The Philippines managed to escape WWI relatively unscathed but fell to the Japanese Empire in WWII, prompting a drawn-out and grueling allied campaign of liberation, culminating in the liberation of Manila in 1945.
Battles
The Philippine Revolution
José Rizal was the leader of the revolutionary intellectuals combating the weakening Spanish rule. He was arrested in 1892, and Andres Bonifacio became the leader of the Katipunan (Kataas-taasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang mga Anak ng Bayan — Highest and Most Respectable Society of the Sons of the People).[11] By 1896, membership had soared to thirty thousand fighters, including some women. In August 1896, the Spanish prematurely discovered plans for the revolt, immediately initiated a crackdown, and executed Rizal. The conflict intensified until both sides fought to a stalemate; on December 15, a cease-fire was signed between the two sides. This lasted until the Spanish-American War began, and, with American aid, the natives successfully expunged the Spanish from the Philippines.[12] Yet as the dust settled, it became apparent the United States had no intention of returning control of the country back to the native Filipinos.[13]
American and Filipino forces rallying against the Spanish.
Courtesy of Oregon. Adjutant-General's Office Finzer, W. E Gantenbein, Calvin Ursinus, 1865-. Public Domain.
Philippine-American War
Without outside help, Aguinaldo attempted to lead his troops in a conventional war against a better-equipped and better-trained force who had a constant supply of weapons and ammunition. The result was a catastrophic loss in life that prompted a switch to unconventional guerrilla tactics.[14] American soldiers resorted to burning villages, relocating civilians to horribly overcrowded concentration camps, and torturing guerrilla prisoners.[15] The Filipino soldiers tortured and killed American prisoners and tortured or executed any civilian who worked with American forces.[16] Caught between two uncompromising forces, thousands of civilians were killed by the fighting, starvation, or outbreaks of cholera and malaria.[17]
Even as the fighting dragged on, the United States launched a “policy of attraction,” garnering the support of wealthy landowners with the promise of eventual independence. This was taken up by powerful and influential Filipinos, and it significantly undermined the rebellion’s popular support.[18] In March 1901, Aguinaldo was captured by American forces, and he agreed to swear allegiance to the United States.[19] President Roosevelt extended a proclamation of general amnesty on July 4, 1902, to formally end the war.[20]
A bicameral Filipino government was established with a lower house of popularly-elected Philippine assembly and an upper house (which could pass laws), called the Philippine Commission, whose members were appointed by the President of the United States.[21] In 1916, open elections were held for both the Philippine assembly and commission, then called the House of Representatives and Senate, respectively. The Nacionalista Party, the main Filipino party, won all but one seat in the Senate and seven seats in the House. This gave them an uncontested majority. In 1935, the Commonwealth of the Philippines was established, granting full autonomy and independence.[22] In 1934, the first constitutional congress was held, and the document ratified and accepted in 1935.[23]
This video gives a breakdown of the complex Philippine-American War.
World War II
In 1931, Japan launched an attack on Manchuria, quickly subduing it. In 1937, Japan followed with a brutal attack on China. In December, 1941, Japanese forces launched a surprise attack against the American naval base at Pearl Harbor while simultaneously launching an aggressive areal and ground campaign on the Philippines.[24] Combined American and Filipino forces surrendered the Philippines in May 1942.[25]
Japanese soldiers immediately marched them from the Bataan Peninsula back north to San Fernando, sixty-six miles away. Of the seventy-six thousand soldiers who started the march, only fifty-four thousand reached the camp; the rest were shot, bayonetted, beaten, or beheaded. An additional twenty-six thousand Filipinos and fifteen hundred Americans died at Camp O’Donnell during the course of the war.[26] This was known forever after as the Bataan Death March. The Japanese Council of State retained control over the islands with support from the wealthy Filipinos that defected to their side during the invasion. Several resistance groups sprang up, altogether totaling over 260,000 Filipino and American resistance fighters.[27]
Japanese soldiers observe their prisoners during the Bataan Death March.
Courtesy of Wikimedia Commons. Public Domain.
In 1944, American naval forces entered Leyte Gulf and engaged Japanese ships in the Leyte Gulf Battles, some of the largest Pacific naval battles in the war. General MacArthur landed on the Island of Leyte and issued his famous “I have returned” speech.[28] Japanese defensive forces increased, and Kamikaze airplanes attacked American carriers, forcing them to commit their fighters to defend their home ship rather the supporting the ground operations. American and Japanese forces clashed in island warfare that resulted in 3,504 American troops dead and twelve thousand wounded, while the Japanese suffered forty-nine thousand casualties. On December 26, 1944, the Island of Leyte was secured, and a solid foothold was established for the liberation of the Philippines.[29]
This video shows historical footage from the battle of Leyte:
The Americans pressed on to the Island of Luzon and suffered 10,380 casualties while the Japanese sustained 230,000 killed or wounded.[30] During this time, Japanese General Tomoyuki Yamashita declared Manila an open city, which led to widespread rape, destruction, looting, and murder. After the war, Yamashita was tried as a war criminal for failing to maintain discipline over his troops; he was sentenced to death and executed.[31] Thousands died days before the city’s liberation when American troops swarmed into the capital to capture Mamashita and formally end the war in the Philippines.[32]
Tactics
During the Philippine-American War, the leader of the Filipino forces, Aguinaldo, elected to switch to guerrilla tactics. His forces engaged in hit and run attacks, booby-traps, ambushes, and deliberate targeting of noncombatants. [33] Resistance fighters applied these same tactics during the Japanese occupation of the Philippines.
In general, guerrilla forces avoid protracted engagements with large enemy forces and instead seek to hit vulnerable targets like fuel and supply depots. They take advantage of small mobile forces to outmaneuver and harass larger, more cumbersome targets that have long, vulnerable supply chains.[34] Even though the Filipinos lacked central command and coordination, or even communication between cells, they mounted effective responses to foreign invaders. They utilized their knowledge of the local language, geography, and demographics to move from island to island and set ambushes and traps for the enemy. They could hit a patrol and kill two soldiers, then hit them again a few miles down the trail to wound one solider, and then let the remaining soldiers walk into an ambush that would finish them off. While it never achieved the effectiveness and sophistication of the Viet Cong during the Vietnam war, the tactic proved effective at preventing foreign powers from gaining complete control over the country.[35]
During Spanish occupation, warriors were taught the fundamentals of rhythm and timing by hiding combat drills in dances. Maglalatik or the coconut dance, is a mock battle between Christians and Muslims over a coconut. The practitioners wear coconut shells attached to their bodies they rhythmically hit before hitting the shells of the opposing sides. These movements stimulate the lines of attack and defense that are the core of stick and unarmed fighting[36]. Additionally, the coconuts the students would hit were placed on the knees, hips, and shoulders, the same areas where gaps were present in Spanish armor. This trained young practitioners how to fight the Spanish effectively while being completely invisible to the Spanish soldiers[37].
Two Filipino Martial Arts practitioners discuss the maglalatik dance.
Two practitioners discuss the wider application of games in Filipino Martial Arts.
Weapons
The Philippines are home to a well established “blade culture” tradition. Knives were almost always carried as tools and weapons, and their use was common long before Spanish colonization.[38] During the Philippine Revolution, most of the insurgents had knives because they were easy to make and conceal. During the Philippine-American War, knives were the weapon of choice because they were effective and sent a powerful message—like during the Balangiga Massacre, when thirty-six American soldiers were killed by Filipino insurgents.[39]
Filipino martial arts (FMA) incorporates many styles and categories. It evolved from traditional indigenous warfare and ritualized fighting into an effective system practiced by insurgents against the Spanish, Americans, and Japanese. The system is generally divided into open hand and weapon-based, the most famous weapons being the karambit and the stick. Modern Arnis, Kali, and Eskrima (also spelled Escrima) all refer to this system of fighting.
In 1966, Grandmaster Angel Cabales moved to California and began teaching the art to non-Filipino practitioners. The art enjoyed a resurgence thanks to modern-day masters and its popularity on the internet and in film. While there is some disagreement, it is argued that Kali is the mother art of Arnis and Escrima. Arnis focuses on the bladed weapon, while Escrima is based on the baston or stick.[40]
Filipino familiarity with knives and swords comes from their farming tools. During the Philippine Revolution, many insurgents used converted farming tools as effective weapons.[41]
A collection of Filipino farming tools. | 1. The all-purpose bolo: Used for all sorts of odd jobs, such as breaking open coconuts. | 2. The haras: Similar to a small scythe, it is used for cutting tall grass. It is called "Lampas" by people from Mindanao. | 3. The kutsilyo: The term comes from the Spanish word cuchillo ("knife"). Generally used to kill and bleed pigs during slaughter. | 4. A smaller bolo. | 5. The bolo-guna (or simply guna): A bolo specifically shaped for digging out roots and weeding. | 6. The garab: Used to harvest rice. | 7. A large pinuti: Traditionally, it is tipped with snake, spider, or scorpion venom and used for self-defense. | 8. The sundang (also "tip bolo" or "iták"): Supposedly used mainly to open coconuts, the sundang was a popular weapon of choice in the Philippine Revolution against the Spanish Empire and during the subsequent Philippine–American War. |.
Courtesy of EtW. Public Domain.
The most famous Filipino weapon is the karambit, a curved knife believed to derive from an Indonesian farm tool. It served as a utility knife for farming, fishing, and other tasks, but its characteristic curve gave it impressive reach, flexibility, and maneuverability in battle.[42] The ring on the top is designed to assist weapon retention as well as allow the user to attack with the handle of the knife.[43]
An example of a typical Indonesian fixed blade karambit.
Courtesy of The Metropolitan Museum of Art. Public Domain.
This video shows the breathtaking fluidity of Filipino knife fighting and how one action flows into another.
This video is a wonderful display of two masters demonstrating their art.
This video shows how the curved geometry of the karambit can be used to employ a number of techniques.
In addition to knives, FMA encompasses a wide range of swords. Some of the most well-known are the Kampilan, a weapon with a characteristic forked tip traditionally associated with the Muslim Moro people of southern Philippines. The Espada and Daga was a sword and dagger combination that was designed to be able to work at long, medium, and short ranges.[44] The Kris is defined by its wavy blade—though some are straight—and its use as a status symbol, spiritual object, and weapon.[45] The Ginunting, the official sword of the Philippine Marines, is designed as a reliable cut and thrust weapon.[46]
A collection of blades designed for cutting: No. 1. Straight-edged steel kampilan, Lake Lanao, Mindanao. 2. Curved and spiked steel talibong. Bagobo, Mindanao. 3. Curved and spiked talibong (grass cutter). Moro, Lake Lanao, northern Mindanao. 4. Kampilan blade with arabesque (floriated) etching on blade surfaces. Moro, Lake Lanao region, northern Mindanao.
Courtesy of Herbert W. Krieger. Public Domain.
A collection of straight and flamberged Kriss blades.
Courtesy of Herbert W. Krieger. Public Domain.
Weapons scholar Matt Easton examines a period Kris sword.
In order to train swords, Filipino Martial Arts makes extensive use of stick fighting as a stand-in for any sword or long blade. Called Eskrima, the sticks are used singly or in pairs and are used to teach patterns of striking and angles of opportunity.
This video is a fantastic demonstration of how sticks can stand in for two swords, or a sword and dagger
This video shows how to fight with a sword and dagger
This video is an exhibition of how double stick flow translates into double sword flow
Armor
Filipino insurgents didn’t have access to or perhaps need body armor; however, the Muslim-practicing Moros in the southern Philippines did make Islamic armor. While rifles and firearms made this armor largely obsolete, it could be lifesaving in a blade-based culture. Additionally, sophisticated weapons, armor, and tactics played a large role in Moro independence during Spanish, American, and Japanese occupation.[47] While Moro armor is related to the Philippines, Filipino Martial Arts does not practice armored fighting, instead focusing on combat in casual clothes or a light combat uniform.
A classic example of Moro armor.
Courtesy of Daderot. Public Domain.
Specialty: Improvised Weapons
One unique aspect of FMA is its focus on improvised weapons. A master of the system was expected to be able to fight effectively with anything that came to hand. During Spanish rule, the Igorot of northern Luzon and the Moro pirates of Mindanao were famous for being able to throw rocks with deadly speed and accuracy. The skill was practiced and perfected with childhood games that involved children throwing stones at each other until one side broke and ran.[48]
This video breaks down the different attributes of improvised weapons and how they can be used.
This video shows how different attributes can be applied in a hammer and a baseball cap.
The Filipinos are an exceptionally brave and tenacious fighting force. Not only are they terrifyingly effective with knives and other melee weapons, but they repeatedly used knives and farming equipment to engage military forces armed with artillery and rifles. During the Philippine-American War, Morro warriors continually charged the American forces, dealing horrific damage once they got within striking range. They were so effective the army updated its sidearm from the .38 service revolver to the larger caliber .45 Colt self-loading pistol as their new official sidearm.[49]
Works Cited
Footnotes
[1] “Philippine Statistics Authority | Republic of the Philippines.”
[2] Postma, “The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary.”
[3] Bergreen, Over the Edge of the World.
[4] “Philippines - The Spanish Period.”
[5] “Philippines - Sports and Recreation.”
[6] “Philippine History a Basic Overview.”
[7] “Philippine History a Basic Overview.”
[8] “Ferdinand Magellan - Explorer - Biography.”
[9] “Philippines - The Spanish Period.”
[10] “Philippines - The Spanish Period.”
[11] “History of the Philippine Revolution.”
[12] “Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.”
[13] “Introduction - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress).”
[14] “Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.”
[15] “Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.”
[16] “Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.”
[17] “Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.”
[18] “Philippines - The Period of U.S. Influence.”
[19] “Emilio Aguinaldo - General, President (Non-U.S.) - Biography.”
[20] “Proclamation of General Amnesty by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt July 4, 1902.”
[21] “The First Phase of the United States Rule, 1898-1935.”
[22] “The Jones Act.”
[23] “Commonwealth Politics, 1935-41.”
[24] “World War II in the Pacific.”
[25] “Philippines - The Period of U.S. Influence.”
[26] “Bataan Death March | Definition, Facts, Aftermath, & Significance.”
[27] “Philippines in World War II.”
[28] “Philippines in World War II.”
[29]“Chapter 8: The Leyte Operation.”
[30] “The Stamford Historical Society, Pride and Patriotism: Stamford’s Role in World War II, Battles: Luzon.”
[31] “Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita.”
[32] “Philippines in World War II.”
[33] DEADY, “Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: The Philippines, 1899-1902.”
[34] Townshend, The Oxford History of Modern War.
[35] Gross, A Muslim Archipelago.
[36] Mallari, “Filipino War Dances.”
[37] 413Group, Two Practitioners Talking.
[38] “The Enduring Knife Culture in the Philippines - FMA Pulse.”
[39] “Balangiga Massacre, 1901.”
[40] “History of Arnis.”
[41] Mallari, “Improvised Weaponry.”
[42] “Karambit FAQ Frequently Asked Questions | Karambit.”
[43] Funker Tactical - Fight Training Videos, How To Use The 599 FOX Karambit Knife With Doug Marcaida | Part 2 of 4.
[44] “Espada Y Daga | Traditional Filipino Weapons.”
[45] “Indonesian Kris - Intangible Heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO.”
[46] “Philippine Marines Fight with ‘Kali.’”
[47] “Moro | People.”
[48] Mallari, “Improvised Weaponry.”
[49] DK Books, Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor.
Citations
Philippine-American War, 1899-1902. “Balangiga Massacre, 1901.” Accessed May 25, 2018. http://www.filipinoamericanwar.com/balangigamassacre1901.htm.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Bataan Death March | Definition, Facts, Aftermath, & Significance.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/event/Bataan-Death-March.
Bergreen, Laurence. Over the Edge of the World: Magellan’s Terrifying Circumnavigation of the Globe. London: Harper Perennial, 2005.
“Chapter 8: The Leyte Operation.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://history.army.mil/books/wwii/MacArthur%20Reports/MacArthur%20V1/ch08.htm.
“Commonwealth Politics, 1935-41.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.bansa.org/history/japanrule/politics/.
DEADY, TIMOTHY K. “Lessons from a Successful Counterinsurgency: The Philippines, 1899-1902,” 2005, 16.
DK Books. Weapon A Visual History of Arms and Armor. Edited by Paula Regan. DK publishing, n.d.
“Emilio Aguinaldo - General, President (Non-U.S.) - Biography.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/emilio-aguinaldo-9177563.
“Espada Y Daga | Traditional Filipino Weapons.” Accessed May 25, 2018. https://www.traditionalfilipinoweapons.com/shop/espada-y-daga/.
“Ferdinand Magellan - Explorer - Biography.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.biography.com/people/ferdinand-magellan-9395202.
Funker Tactical - Fight Training Videos. How To Use The 599 FOX Karambit Knife With Doug Marcaida | Part 2 of 4. Accessed May 25, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FQ1WQmvjri0.
Gross, Max L. A Muslim Archipelago: Islam and Politics in Southeast Asia. Washington, DC: Center for Strategic Intelligence Research, National Defense Intelligence College, 2007.
“History of Arnis.” Accessed May 25, 2018. http://www.combatscience.net/history-of-arnis/.
National Commission for Culture and the Arts. “History of the Philippine Revolution.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://ncca.gov.ph/subcommissions/subcommission-on-cultural-heritagesch/historical-research/history-of-the-philippine-revolution/.
“Indonesian Kris - Intangible Heritage - Culture Sector - UNESCO.” Accessed May 25, 2018. https://ich.unesco.org/en/RL/indonesian-kris-00112.
“Introduction - The World of 1898: The Spanish-American War (Hispanic Division, Library of Congress).” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.loc.gov/rr/hispanic/1898/intro.html.
“Karambit FAQ Frequently Asked Questions | Karambit.” Accessed May 25, 2018. https://www.karambit.com/faq/#faq2.
Mallari, Perry Gil S. “Improvised Weaponry.” FMA Pulse (blog), November 1, 2010. http://fmapulse.com/fma-corner/fma-corner-improvised-weaponry/.
“Milestones: 1899–1913 - Office of the Historian.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Moro | People.” Accessed May 31, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Moro.
“Philippine History a Basic Overview.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.livecebu.com/philhistory.htm#Ancientprspanish.
The Manila Times. “Philippine Marines Fight with ‘Kali.’” Accessed May 25, 2018. http://www.manilatimes.net/philippine-marines-fight-with-kali/84564/.
“Philippine Statistics Authority | Republic of the Philippines.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://psa.gov.ph/population-and-housing.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Philippines - Sports and Recreation.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippines.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Philippines - The Period of U.S. Influence.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippines.
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Philippines - The Spanish Period.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Philippines.
WW2DB. “Philippines in World War II.” Accessed May 24, 2018. <link rel='alternate' media='only screen and (max-width: 640px)' href='http://m.ww2db.comhttps://ww2db.com:443/country/philippines' />.
Postma, Antoon. “The Laguna Copper-Plate Inscription: Text and Commentary,” n.d., 22.
“Proclamation of General Amnesty by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt July 4, 1902.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1902/07/04/101957581.pdf.
“The Enduring Knife Culture in the Philippines - FMA Pulse.” Accessed May 25, 2018. http://fmapulse.com/fma-corner/fma-corner-enduring-knife-culture-philippines/.
“The First Phase of the United States Rule, 1898-1935.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.bansa.org/history/usrule/.
“The Jones Act.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.bansa.org/history/usrule/jones/.
“The Stamford Historical Society, Pride and Patriotism: Stamford’s Role in World War II, Battles: Luzon.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://www.stamfordhistory.org/ww2_luzon.htm.
Townshend, Charles, ed. The Oxford History of Modern War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
“Trial of General Tomoyuki Yamashita.” Accessed May 24, 2018. http://lawofwar.org/Yamashita%20Commission.htm.
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “World War II in the Pacific.” Accessed May 24, 2018. https://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10005155.
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