History
Hawaii was probably settled around 400 CE when Polynesians from the Marquesas Islands, 2000 miles away, sailed over to the five islands of Hawaii in large seagoing canoes. Once they landed, they divided up into tribes ruled by chieftains[1].
A map of the Hawaiian islands.
Courtesy of NASA. Public Domain.
These chiefs fought for land and honor, similar to European feudal wars. The conflicts were often quite complex and multifaceted with multiple claims to land and tribal feuds going back generations. Hawaiian history was entirely oral, containing a vast wealth of rich mythology, history, and practical knowledge[2]. One specialty of the oral historians was foraging and navigation, the Hawaiians were expert navigators and could sail by day or night using the sun and stars to navigate and had a sophisticated calendar to track celestial events[3]. Their canoes eventually changed specialty from long-distance sea voyages to transporting people and cargo between islands, requiring deeper hulls and the ability to switch from sail to paddle for locomotion[4]. Artisans started to specialize in Kapa making and Hula[5].
Kapa is a fabric made from the fibers of specific trees. First, an appropriate tree would be found, usually a wauke (paper mulberry), then the outer bark is scraped away until the white bast layer is exposed. Then if all is done right, the entire bast layer comes off in one piece, usually with the help of a shark tooth knife or shell implement. Next, it is beaten with special Kapa sticks to loosen the fibers and prepare them to be soaked in water. After about two weeks, they are beaten again using a special wooden anvil called 'kua la'au' and a squared sided beater called the 'I'e kuku.' The bark, now supple and cloth-like, is layered and dried before being scented and processed to make fabric[6].
Hula is a form of dancing originally designed to tell stories and served as a breeding ground for new warriors. The dance consists of a leader playing a rhythm, generally on a drum, and chanting as the dancers follow along. The chant tells a story while the dancers act it out[7]. Contrary to popular belief, both men and women danced the Hula and trained for years because the subject was usually war stories, and the dancers had to train as warriors[8]. Dancers were made to carry rocks over land, on the beach in shifting sand, and through the ocean in pounding surf. One of the hardest training exercises was to climb a coconut tree, up to 100 feet off the ground with no ropes or safety equipment. All these exercises made the dancers physically and mentally tough while teaching them to be brave and resilient. After their training was complete, the local chief would visit the dancers and select the best among them to join his army[9]. Warriors were kept in peak condition by participating in Olympic style games like surfing[10].
This video shows a modern dancing group that trains and performs as traditional Hawaiians did.
In 1778 British sailor and explorer Captain Cook landed in Kealakekua Bay on the island of Hawaiʻi. He was warmly received and showered with gifts and honors by the locals, as was customary when meeting new visitors. Cook took heavily of the local resources to restock his two ships Discovery and Resolution and left in 1779 amid rising tensions. A gale that broke the mast of Resolution forced him to return to Kealakekua Bay to make repairs. First, a pair of armor’s tongs then a pair of rope cutters went missing, prompting Cook to lead nine marines to shore to take the chief Kalani`opu`u hostage. A fight broke out in which Cook was killed. Afterward, a truce was called, and communications resumed, the mast was repaired, and the Hawaiians returned Cook’s remains to be taken back to England. The British expedition left peacefully on February 22ed, 1779. [11]
This video addresses some of the controversies in accounts and interpretations of Cook’s death.
Kamehameha (full Hawaiian name: Kalani Paiʻea Wohi o Kaleikini Kealiʻikui Kamehameha o ʻIolani i Kaiwikapu kauʻi Ka Liholiho Kūnuiākea), the son of the chief and future ruler of a unified Hawaii, was present at the battle where Cook died and was said to have shown great skill and valor. Kalani`opu`u, the chief of Hawaiʻi and Kamehameha’s father, divided his succession and power. He gave Kamehameha control over political matters and entrusted his Nephew Kamehameha control over the military. Kalani'opu'u died, in 1782 and a civil war between the two heirs soon broke out for uncontested control over Hawaiʻi[12]. After four years of fighting Kiwala'o was killed in battle, and Kamehameha continued his campaign, attempting to unify the entire Island of Hawaii under his rule. After years of indecisive victories and defeats with no major ground gained, he set up a port to receive foreigners following in Cook's footsteps. Kamehameha amassed firearms and military knowledge from his European visitors and brought them to bear on his enemies. In 1810 Kauai, the last holdout against his rule, finally capitulated. After nearly 30 years of constant fighting, Kamehameha the Great finally ruled over a united Hawaiian nation[13].
His most significant achievement was to establish mamalahoe kanawai, or "law of the splintered paddle.", a set of common laws that lay the foundation for Hawaii’s legal system. One of the most important components of the new nation-wide law was one that guaranteed the safety of the highways to all. This made violent assault illegal for the first time in Hawaiian history and ushered in an era of peace. [14]
A statue of Kamehameha being honored with floral leis.
Courtesy of Surfsupusa. Public Domain.
In the 1800s, Hawaii had become an important way stop for American ships, fertile ground for American Missionaries, and a rich exporter of sugar cane. Its location was a strategic staging point in the Pacific, and officials in Washington were concerned some other nation might claim it. In 1893 after the monarchy had tried to assert its independence, an American force led by Samuel Dole deposed Queen Liliʻuokalani (full Hawaiian name: Lydia Liliʻu Loloku Walania Kamakaʻeha). The Queen abdicated under protest to avoid any bloodshed. In spite of anti-imperialist tendencies and a failed movement to restore the Queen in 1894 under President Cleveland, nationalism and the need for a strategic staging base in the Pacific took hold in the Spanish American War, and Hawaii was annexed in 1898. In 1900 it was made a territory, and after World War II, it was made the 50th state in 1959. [15]
Battles
Battle of Nuʻuanu
This was a key turning point in the final wars of unification when Kamehameha's forces landed on Oʻahu to subdue his rival Kalanikupule. After several days of gathering supplies, Kamehameha's men advanced and ran into Kalanikupule’s first line of defense, which Kamehameha outflanked and forced back into the second line of defense, where he could shell them with cannons brought for the purpose. Even though Kamehameha was wounded in the return fire, his barrage killed Kalanikupule’s commander Kaiana sending the O’ahu defenders into a chaotic retreat through the Nuʻuanu Valley to the cliffs at Nuʻuanu Pali. Caught between the rapidly advancing army and a thousand-foot drop, over 700 O’ahu warriors either jumped or were pushed to their deaths. Kalanikupule escaped but was captured and killed.
While Kamehameha still had to capture Kauaʻi, this battle marked the climax and the end of his long campaign and gave him the momentum and reputation needed for the king of Kaua’I to surrender before Kamehameha could attack. With Kaua’i’s surrender, Kamehameha had finally secured control over all five islands and created a unified Hawaii. [16]
A view of the cliffs the O'ahu warriors fell down.
Courtesy of Jiang. Public Domain.
The Tromelin Affair/Sacking of Honolulu
1849, French admiral Louis Tromelin arrived in Honolulu Harbor on a Corvette and frigate and were angry that local American Protestants were attempting to exile Catholics and impeded French trade on the island. The admiral issued an ultimatum of several demands that if unmet would result in French hostilities. 2 weeks later the demands had still not been met, so Tromelin sent in 140 french marines who assaulted Honolulu Fort and quickly overran it, discovering it was only manned by two men the rest had been evacuated before the attack. French forces destroyed every weapon in the fort they could find then spread out into Honolulu and raided government buildings and private property, causing over $100,000 in damages. The local population did not resist, ridiculing the soldiers while the French ransacked their homes. The French took the king's yacht Kamehameha III then retreated to the fort. A few days later, the locals organized a mock battle party, spooking the French and causing them to double their patrols. A few weeks later, having experienced no counter-attack and unwilling to embroil France in a costly war on the other side of the world, a bewildered Admiral Tromelin withdrew his forces and sailed back to France. [17]
Annexation of Hawaii
In 1893 a number of foreigners living in Hawaii, mostly United States Citizens, decided to push for the annexation of Hawaii by the United States. They met with American minister John L. Stevens and convinced him to call in the Marines to secure American interests on the Island. This gave the revolution firepower, and they marched on the government building. Queen Liliʻuokalani surrendered without a fight and was imprisoned, handing control of the monarchy to the United States rather than the revolution in hopes the United States would restore her monarchy. At the request of the provisional government, Stevens proclaimed Hawaii a protectorate of the United States. The flag was raised above the government building, and martial law was enforced. [18]
By 1896 Liliʻuokalani had sought indemnity from the United States and traveled between Hawaii and Washington DC. In 1897 President McKinley signed the "Treaty for the Annexation for the Hawaiian Islands," but it was defeated in the Senate due to thousands of petitions signed by Hawaiian citizens showing the strong grassroots opposition to annexation. With the outbreak of the Spanish-American war and the need for a strategic position in the Pacific, Hawaii was annexed anyway with the passing of the Newlands Resolution. [19]
Queen Liliʻuokalani, the last monarch of Hawaii.
Courtesy of George Prince. Public Domain.
Attack on pearl harbor
“December 7th, 1941, a date which will live in infamy. The United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the empire of Japan.”[20]. Those famous words were uttered by President Franklin D. Roosevelt the day after Japan launched a surprise attack on Pearl Harbor, plunging the United States into World War II.
This video provides a concise breakdown of the attack and its motives.
Tactics
While Hawaiians were not generally violent people when there was fighting to be done, they took to it with excitement and gusto. Battles between tribes usually started with a ritualized war chant or dance called a Haka. Next, they would unleash a volley of ranged attacks, either slings with rocks or throwing spears with barbed heads. Next, they charged the enemy with pikes and spears. As they closed to melee range, they would switch to swords and knives; whoever had more warriors at the end won.
This video shows what a traditional Polynesian Haka looks like
Women played essential roles in the fighting, retrieving and collecting weapons, treating the wounded and removing them from the battlefield, even fighting alongside the men on occasion[21]. A legend from Kaua‘I tells how the wife of the great warrior Kawelo, Kane-wahine-iki-aohe, helped her husband defeat the evil giant Kauahoa. In the legend, Kawelo used a magic tree as a club and told Kane-wahine-iki-aohe to throw her tripping line into the branches of his tree and hold on tight. As the tree fell to the side and its branches tangled in the giant’s club, Kawelo ran around behind the giant and killed it with his club. [22]
Weapons
Hawaiian weapons were varied and deadly. At the start of the battle, each army used projectile weapons, ma’a (sling), and ma’a ala (sling stone) could prove lethal when fired in a volley. Throwing spears made of koa hardwood with barbed heads were designed to break off after they impaled a target. It was not uncommon for them to be lined with shark’s teeth for extra damage. [23]
Next, they would close in with spears and pikes, both fashioned from koa and sharpened to a wicked point. As they closed to melee range, the warriors would switch to close range weapons like swords, tripping cords, clubs, and knives. Polynesian swords were made of one of the indigenous hardwoods and set in with shells or shark teeth, giving them an unrivaled cutting edge. They came in all shapes and sizes as each warrior would either make their own weapons or have someone more skilled make it specifically for them[24]. Tripping cords were woven strands of fiber about 30 feet long between two sticks designed to trip enemy combatants so they could be attacked while they were down. A variant was the ka‘ane or strangling cord, which was the official method of execution[25]. Clubs were carved from hardwood and sometimes set with teeth to give them additional piercing power. A few were inlaid with a single molar from the mouths of slain enemies[26]. Knives came in all shapes and sizes, some with embedded teeth, some without; all were lethal and carved by hand from stout hardwood.
An example of a club with inlaid shark's teeth.
Courtesy of Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Public Domain.
This video shows the extent and variety of Hawaiian weapons.
Armor
Most Hawaiian warriors fought in loincloths or malo and covered their bodies in oil, so enemies could not get a grip on them. Chieftains and nobles would wear a feathered cape and a helmet. In later wars thin, woven mats were sometimes used as body armor[27]. The chief adornment for warriors was intricate and expressive tattoos. Tattoos were profoundly significant, and either told a story or showed some significant symbolism. Warriors hoped to channel mana or life force with their tattoos as well as intimidate and demoralize the enemy[28]. Tattoos were used to mourn lost loved ones or celebrate important victories, reaffirm religious devotion, or commemorate life events.
Receiving a tattoo was a lengthy and involved process. First, the skin had to be broken, usually with a bone needle or the tip of a bird claw. Then the soot of burned kukui nut was rubbed into the skin to make the mark indelible[29]. The process was excruciating, but refusing to get tattooed or worse still, abandoning a tattoo half-finished, could mark the bearer as a coward for the rest of their life[30]. The healing process usually took about six months to a year, and family and friends would assist them by washing the marks in saltwater to stave off infection and massaging the area to prevent impurities[31].
An example of traditional Hawaiian tattoos.
Courtesy of Manu Farrarons. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Manutattoo1” by Manu Farrarons is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International, 3.0 Unported, 2.5 Generic, 2.0 Generic and 1.0 Generic license.
Where the marks were placed and what they depicted were very important. Marks on the head were the connection point to Rangi, the god of heaven, and were related to themes like knowledge, wisdom, and spirituality. The higher trunk, the navel to the chest, was related to generosity, sincerity, honor, and humility. The designs in this area must be balanced to achieve harmony between the different qualities. The thigh to the navel was directly related to mana or life force, courage, and marriage. The belly symbolizes independence, and while independence is prized among the Polynesians, individualism is not. The upper arms and shoulders were reserved for strength and were a prized place for warriors and chiefs. The lower arms and hands were responsible for creativity and making new things. [32]
This video shows a modern-day master fighting to keep traditional tattooing alive
Specialty: Sailing and Wayfinding
An outrigger canoe is made from a single massive trunk of a koa tree and designed to withstand the punishing Pacific Ocean and is remarkable for its support pontoons. Outrigger canoeing is the official sport of Hawaii and holds enormous cultural and historical significance. Canoes were the only means of transportation between islands, and their construction was an important cultural event. First, a priest would find the perfect tree by watching the ‘elepaio, or Hawaiian forest bird. The birds were attracted to fallen Koa trees for the worms and bugs living inside if the priest saw the bird pecking at a tree, that meant the inside was rotten and unsuited for a canoe. Once they found the right tree, dozens of workers were gathered, the priest staying on hand to offer prayers and blessings. Once the tree was felled, it was transported over days and sometimes weeks back to a special shed called a halau used exclusively for building canoes. The canoe carver called kalai wa’a was one of the most revered members of society; they would work for months to hollow out the trunk and install seats. Each seat was usually labeled with the name of the rower, and the paddles were custom-made for each rower. The rower would then etch designs into it and display it proudly in their home when not in use. [33]
An example of a simple single pontoon canoe.
Courtesy of Severson, Don R. Public Domain.
A simple outrigger canoe might have a simple support pontoon while larger ones might have two and could hold up to 80 people and cargo[34]. Another design was two canoes with a platform over the top, similar to a modern-day catamaran.
A modern reproduction of a traditional double-hulled sailing canoe.
Courtesy of HongKongHuey. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Hokule'aSailing” by HongKongHuey is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license.
An essential invention and one that was vital for long voyages was the sail. While the sail could be used in a boat of any size, the ones used for long trans-ocean trips were usually larger with one or more sails. Ocean vessels had deep hulls so they could track through waves effectively, and the bow is constructed in such a way that it will not crush too far into the back of a swell and take on too much water[35]. The bow has a specially sealed compartment that keeps it buoyant both when sailing and in the event of capsizing. The only nonpractical feature of Hawaiian canoes is the Momoa, a small protrusion at the stern. The legend states that a spirit wanted to ride with a canoe as they sailed between islands. The chief told the spirit that there was no room, so the spirit leaped from the boat and grabbed onto a protrusion at the stern. The design feature has been kept ever since to allow invisible but benevolent ancestral spirits ('aumakua) to ride along. [36]
Polynesians are expert maritime navigators, able to sail 2000 miles over the open ocean from Hawaii to Tahiti using nothing more than the sun, birds, and stars. Navigation relied on memorization and observation; the sun’s rising and setting points, as well as its path along the sky, were used during the day. Once the sun set, the star’s setting and rising points, as well as specific stars in the sky, were used to navigate. If no stars were present, the navigator would use the wind and the swells to keep them on course. The best navigators lie down in the middle of the canoe and feel the waves as they slap the hull and can tell precisely where they are and where they are going to be. This training usually starts in early childhood when they are laid in tidepools to feel the push and pull of the ocean. [37] Navigators could use star compasses to navigate as each star has a specific declination when they rise and set. The navigator could use the star as it rose and as it set. Once it rose too high, he would choose the next star in line and navigate off that. [38]
A reproduction of Mau's own star compass, used for navigating by stars.
Courtesy of Newportm. Creative Commons (BY-SA). “Mau-star-compass” by Newportm is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
Birds were also an essential tool as they signaled there was land within flying distance. The 'iwa bird is pelagic, meaning it lives at sea and sleeps on the waves, only returning to land to roost and teach their young how to fly. The manu o ku (white tern) and noio (brown tern) are both land-based birds and return to an island each night to sleep, then fly out to the ocean each morning to gather food. Noio fly about 40 miles out; the manu o ku go about 120 miles out. [39] If birds are spotted at sunset when they are returning to land, if they are spotted at sunrise, they are coming away from land[40].
Navigators do not do any physical work on the boat, focusing solely on getting the crew to the right place. They work till they cannot work anymore then they nap for a bit. Mau Piailug, a master navigator from Micronesia and leader of the revitalization of non-instrument wayfinding, says that maybe his eyes are closed but inside here, inside his heart, he is always awake. [41]
In this video, Mau talks about the importance of navigation.
Works Cited
Footnotes
[1] “Hawaii - History and Heritage.”
[2] “Hawaii - Government and Society.”
[3] “Evolution of the Hawaiian Canoe.”
[4] “Evolution of the Hawaiian Canoe.”
[5] “The Hawaiian Culture - Hawaii History - Hawaiian Culture.”
[6] “Kapa Making and Processing.”
[7] “History of Hula | Ka`Imi Na`auao O Hawai`i Nei Institute.”
[8] Great Big Story, Telling Warrior Stories with Hula.
[9] Great Big Story.
[10] “Makahiki Games: The Hawaiian Olympics | Roberts Hawaii.”
[11] The Amazing Life and Strange Death of Captain Cook.
[12] Kawaihae and Us, “Kamehameha the Great - Pu`ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service).”
[13] Kawaihae and Us.
[14] “Ke Kānāwai Māmalahoe | William S. Richardson School of Law.”
[15] Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, “Annexation of Hawaii, 1898.”
[16] “Nu’uanu, O’ahu -- A Native Place.”
[17] “The Day the French Invaded Hawaii.”
[18] “The_Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Monarchy_PDF.Pdf.”
[19] “Annexation of Hawaii | University of Hawaii at Manoa Library.”
[20] “‘A Date Which Will Live in Infamy’: FDR Asks for a Declaration of War.”
[21] “Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art.”
[22] “Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art.”
[23] “Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art.”
[24] “Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art.”
[25] Big Island Television, Hawaii, Traditional Hawaiian Weapons.
[26] “Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art.”
[27] “Mythic Hawaii - Hawaiian Tribal Warrior.”
[28] “Mythic Hawaii - Hawaiian Tribal Warrior.”
[29] “Hawaiian Tattoos.”
[30] “Polynesian Tattoo.”
[31] “Polynesian Tattoo.”
[32] “Polynesian Tattoo.”
[33] Lara, “Hawaiian Outrigger Canoeing | It’s History & Revival To Date.”
[34] Lara.
[35] “Evolution of the Hawaiian Canoe.”
[36] “Evolution of the Hawaiian Canoe.”
[37] “On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.”
[38] “On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.”
[39] “On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.”
[40] “On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.”
[41] “On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.”
Citations
“‘A Date Which Will Live in Infamy’: FDR Asks for a Declaration of War.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://historymatters.gmu.edu/d/5166/
“Annexation of Hawaii | University of Hawaii at Manoa Library,” December 30, 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20161230013831/http://libweb.hawaii.edu/digicoll/annexation/petition/pet-intro.php
Big Island Television, Hawaii. Traditional Hawaiian Weapons. Accessed June 5, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5P0VRfEfiCo
Department Of State. The Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs. “Annexation of Hawaii, 1898.” Accessed June 5, 2018. https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm
“Evolution of the Hawaiian Canoe.” Accessed June 4, 2018. http://archive.hokulea.com/ike/kalai_waa/kane_evolution_hawaiian_canoe.html
Great Big Story. Telling Warrior Stories with Hula. Accessed June 5, 2018. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BFT-M18N2A4
Encyclopedia Britannica. “Hawaii - Government and Society.” Accessed June 4, 2018. https://www.britannica.com/place/Hawaii-state
Smithsonian. “Hawaii - History and Heritage.” Accessed June 4, 2018. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/hawaii-history-and-heritage-4164590/
“Hawaiian Tattoos.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://www2.hawaii.edu/~zinner/101/students/GregHawaiianTatoo/hawaiiantattoos.html
“Hawaiian Weapons | The Weapon Maker’s Art,” March 1, 2009. https://mauimagazine.net/hawaiian-weapons/
“History of Hula | Ka`Imi Na`auao O Hawai`i Nei Institute.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://www.kaimi.org/education/history-of-hula/
“Kapa Making and Processing.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://www.kapahawaii.com/how-to-make-hawaiian-tapa.html
Kawaihae, Mailing Address: Pu’ukohola Heiau National Historic Site 62-3601 Kawaihae Road, and HI 96743 Phone:882-7218 x0 Contact Us. “Kamehameha the Great - Pu`ukoholā Heiau National Historic Site (U.S. National Park Service).” Accessed June 5, 2018. https://www.nps.gov/puhe/learn/historyculture/kamehameha.htm
“Ke Kānāwai Māmalahoe | William S. Richardson School of Law.” Accessed June 5, 2018. https://www.law.hawaii.edu/ke-k%C4%81n%C4%81wai-m%C4%81malahoe
Lara, Tim. “Hawaiian Outrigger Canoeing | It’s History & Revival To Date.” SUP, Canoe, Kayak Tours & Maui Surf Lessons (blog), May 3, 2014. https://hawaiianpaddlesports.com/social/outrigger-canoeing/
“Makahiki Games: The Hawaiian Olympics | Roberts Hawaii.” Accessed June 5, 2018. https://www.robertshawaii.com/blog/makahiki-games-hawaiian-olympics/
“Mythic Hawaii - Hawaiian Tribal Warrior.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://www.mythichawaii.com/ancient.htm
“Nu’uanu, O’ahu -- A Native Place: Battle of Nu’uanu,” June 8, 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20070608000600/http://www.pacificworlds.com/nuuanu/native/native2.cfm
“On Wayfinding / Nainoa Thompson.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://archive.hokulea.com/ike/hookele/on_wayfinding.html
Zealand Tattoo. “Polynesian Tattoo: History, Meanings and Traditional Designs.” Accessed June 5, 2018. http://www.zealandtattoo.co.nz/tattoo-styles/polynesian-tattoo-history-meanings-traditional-designs/
The Amazing Life and Strange Death of Captain Cook: Crash Course World History #27, 2012. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2yXNrLTddME
SeanMunger.com. “The Day the French Invaded Hawaii: The Tromelin Affair.,” December 5, 2013. https://seanmunger.com/2013/12/04/the-day-the-french-invaded-hawaii-the-tromelin-affair/
“The Hawaiian Culture - Hawaii History - Hawaiian Culture.” Accessed June 4, 2018. http://www.hawaiihistory.org/index.cfm?CategoryID=305
“The_Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Monarchy_PDF.Pdf.” Accessed June 5, 2018 http://www.ksbe.edu/assets/pdfs/The_Overthrow_of_the_Hawaiian_Monarchy_PDF.pdf
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