Introduction
The apex of religious exultation in Europe, the cathedral stands as a testament to human ingenuity and devotion. Cathedrals are the largest and grandest churches in the Christian faith. They were traditionally used as the seat of the local bishop and were designed to celebrate God’s glory. Cathedrals were widespread across Europe, and they played a major role in cementing church power and urbanization. In England, a law stated that no cathedral could be built in a village, so any settlement that had a cathedral built in it was immediately upgraded to city status regardless of its size.[1]
East end stained glass windows of the Sainte Chapelle Cathedral. [2].
Courtesy of Oldmanisold. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
In addition to operating as the religious centers of their areas and surrounding churches, cathedrals also served as a focal point for local and regional societies, hosting festivals, religious services, weddings, and funerals. They were some of the first and most important sources of education in the Middle Ages. Cathedrals, as well as lesser churches, housed monasteries, which trained monks to read, write and illustrate texts.[3] In a largely illiterate and turbulent Europe, cathedrals served as stable repositories for vast stores of knowledge.
Teaching at Paris, in a late 14th-century Grandes Chroniques de France: the tonsured students sit on the floor. [4].
Courtesy of Castres, bibliothèque municipale, ms. 3, f. 277r. Public Domain.
The architectural style evolved through several variations. However, the apex of stunning cathedral development in the Middle Ages was the gothic style from about the mid-12th century to the 16th century.[5] While the Renaissance would eventually succeed it, gothic architecture would remain one of the high points of European design. Advances in engineering and mathematical prowess (and the invention of a peaked roof, likely borrowed from Islamic architecture) allowed the cathedral to boast soaring ceilings suspended on delicate columns and inlaid with fabulous stained-glass windows. France dominated the height of the gothic period in 1250.
Parts of a Cathedral
Cathedrals were generally constructed in the shape of a cross on an east-west axis. Exterior ornamentation focused on the western end, which usually served as the main entrance and housed the façade. The façade was comprised of phenomenally-decorated walls of stone with an impressive window or structural group as the centerpiece above the door. A common feature was matching towers, which housed some of the church bells that would summon the faithful to mass or act as a kind of public alert system for the city. Vertical emphasis was an important aspect of traditional gothic architecture, as it was a stark contrast to the thick, squat cathedrals of the Romanesque period, and it gave the impression of light-filled, airy spaces via a ceiling that reached for the heavens.
The facade of the cathedral of Chartres. [6].
Courtesy of Atlant. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
The eastern end faced the direction of the rising sun and made use of internal decoration to capitalize on the dawn light. Additionally, it was the primary service area so that the congregation would face the direction of the coming of Christ.[7] The structure of the east end shows the most architectural variability between countries and cultures. English churches tended towards a steep, clifflike façade while Russian and French cathedrals favored rounded ambulatory façades that were sometimes ornamented with flying buttresses.
The nave was the aisle leading from the primary entrance to the axis and it served as the primary area where the congregation would sit. The transept was where the north-south arms of the cross intersected the east-west hall; they were sometimes adorned with a small spire or dome. Essential to performing religious music, boys or clergy comprised the church choir and would usually be placed past the transept, but before the altar and bishops’ throne. The rest of the clergy and other officials were seated between the choir stalls and the transept. The alter and bishops’ throne was placed in the east end.
The church organ was placed either in a loft at the west end or in a gallery above the choir. The font was a basin of holy water that facilitated the Christian tradition of baptism; it was usually located near the west end. Located at the front of the nave, the lectern was where the holy scripture was read. Made from finely-decorated wood or richly adorned stone, the pulpit was an elevated platform from which the sermon is preached.[8]
A diagram of the sections of a church floor plan. [9].
Courtesy of Apsis.svg: de:Benutzer:Leonce49, Cathedral schematic plan.PNG: Lusitania, with alterations by TTaylor, derivative work: Nemoi n’aime pas parler tout seul. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Architectural Techniques
For centuries, the crippling problem facing architects was how to build a tall church without the ceiling caving in due to the weight of the stone. The vaults used at the time placed enormous downwards and outwards pressure on the supporting walls, which would collapse unless they were ludicrously thick. In past construction, the solution was a squat building with thick, reinforced walls and unattractive drum-like columns that only permitted the smallest of windows.[10]
The interior of the Santa Maria in Cosmedin Church, built in the Romanesque style. [11].
Courtesy of Attila Terbócs. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
The interior of the Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes, built in the gothic style. [12].
Courtesy of DXR. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Three inventions made possible the colossal and slender gothic churches. The rib vault changed the equation by replacing the thick slab roof with thin tiles, dramatically reducing the weight that the walls had to support. Instead of bearing the weight along an entire wall, architects placed slender vaults at strategic points and reinforced those to allow for massive vaulted ceilings and graceful, thin walls. This innovation was combined with the gothic arch, which redirected the force of the ceiling downwards into the ribs rather than outwards.[13]
A diagram of how the arch deflects the weight downwards where it is reinforced by the flying buttress[14].
Courtesy of M. VIOLLET-LE-DUC. Public Domain.
The only problem was that the walls still experienced a significant outward force. Architects could have built unfeasibly thick walls to support the new weight distribution, but they instead decided to prop up the walls with a flying buttress. This is a section of exterior architecture that reinforces the walls at key points and distributes the force into the ground. This allowed the construction of extraordinarily tall buildings with exceptionally thin walls that were so stable that huge sections of the wall could be devoted to stained glass and other ornamentation.[15]
"Transverse section of Notre-Dame de Paris before the 2019 fire. Timber framework in red, masonry in blues, metal in grey. Center, nave, covered by masonry vault and 55-degree triangular roof (spire shown above and behind). Flanking the nave, side aisles, triforium aisle above, flying buttresses. Note that the vaults thrust outwards on the walls, and the flying buttresses thrust inwards; unless these two forces balance, the wall will be pushed over. Black arrows show the force of the weight of the structure being transmitted to the ground; green arrows show the upwards force of the ground supporting the structure. Orange arrows show the forces in the wood of the roof trusses. Roof trusses cancel out their outwards forces using internal tension (masonry cannot support tension). Light added for clarity.".
Courtesy of HLHJ. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Cathedral Construction
Cathedrals were constructed under the direction of a master mason, who may or may not have been part of a guild. With a set of compasses, a set square, and a marked stick, the masons were able to construct towering monuments using nothing more than a rudimentary understanding of proportions and geometry.
The master mason was also in charge of teaching apprentice masons; the juniors were allowed to carve building blocks, while senior apprentices were entrusted with detail work on the façade and other prominent design features.[17] The stone blocks were cut on the ground, then shipped to the build site by water or an ox-driven cart; upon arrival, cranes hoisted the blocks into wooden support frames that held them in place before the keystone was settled to secure the whole assembly.
Construction was usually carried out in the spring and summer months, while the fall was spent preparing for winter and allowing the mortar time to dry and the stones to settle. Winter was typically spent carving more building blocks to be used during the next building season.[18]
This video shows modern-day stonemasons using traditional medieval tools.[19]
The mathematical proportions of the floorplan of the Amiens Cathedral, created with nothing more than a compass and an understanding of geometry. [20].
Courtesy of Dictionnaire raisonné de l’architecture française du XIe au XVIe siècle. Public Domain.
This video provides a breakdown of the different techniques and ideas that conspire to keep cathedrals standing.[21]
The features of a façade were strategically placed to reinforce weight-bearing sections. The clergy paid for the content of the façade, which often depicted small animals or scenes from nature. Some clergy members would pay to have grotesque figures to represent sin and vice and serve as cautionary tales.[22]
An example of the awe-inspiring detail present in the facade. [23].
Courtesy of PHGCOM. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
The interior decoration often continued the theme established by the façade at the west end, usually featuring religious figures and scenes. Some are obvious while other details are small and intricate.
This video shows a modern artist working with stone to create a detailed bust.[24]
An example of the amount of work that was put into the entryway of the cathedral of Amiens, all crafted with hand tools. [25].
Courtesy of Arriqui. Public Domain.
This video shows the work of a stonemason restoring the façade at St. Paul’s cathedral.[26]
A close view of the incredible detail that was put into decorative carving. [27].
Courtesy of Arriqui~commonswiki. Public Domain.
Gargoyles were most prominent in medieval France and they were designed to scare off demons with their monstrous visage. They also served an architectural purpose as rainspouts, collecting and draining rainwater during heavy rains.[28]
The twelve Paisley Abbey replacement gargoyles that were installed in 1991. The set includes "see no evil," "speak no evil," "hear no evil" and a
Xenomorph from the movie Alien. [29].
Courtesy of Colin. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Build time existed on a continuum; it could be as short as forty-five years (as was the case of the Chartres Cathedral) or as long as eight hundred years (like the Cologne Cathedral).[30] Build time was determined by consistent financial support, local and regional stability, and successive generations of building staff. The senior clergy usually procured funding and, due to the enormous prestige and investment a cathedral represented, bishops usually donated some of their substantial wealth. Funding was maintained by setting up donations from the congregation, instituting fees for clerical transgressions like tardiness or sin, or sending relics on tour which could prove extremely lucrative.[31] Starting in the mid-twelfth century, the church started to offer indulges, which absolved the receiver of sin if they worked in a cathedral. This replaced crusades as the most popular way to seek absolution.[32]
An example of a treadwheel crane being used in the Reconstruction of the temple of Jerusalem in 1276 [33].
Courtesy of Guillaume de Tyr, ''Histoire d'Outremer''. Public Domain.
Due to the generational nature of cathedral construction, most people who started the project would never live to see it completed.
This video gives an idea of what faith is required to spend your entire life building something you will not get to see completed.[34]
Notable Cathedrals
Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres, Chartres France
In Chartres, France, lies the Chartres Cathedral also called the Cathedral of Our Lady of Chartres. It is one of the first true gothic-style cathedrals, and it serves as one of the most well-preserved and purest expressions of religious architecture in the 13th century.[35] It was seen as a model, even in its own time, for its mathematically-perfect proportions and brilliant use of new architectural models and designs; it inspired cathedral construction across Europe for the next three hundred years.[36] Even though additions were made during each era of style succession, the overall gothic structure has survived hundreds of years, and it continues to serve as a testament to ingenuity and innovation.
Multiple views of the Chartres Cathedral. [37].
Courtesy of MathKnight. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Notre-Dame de Paris, Paris France
Notre-Dame de Paris is one of the most famous cathedrals in the world. Construction began in 1163 under the command of King Louis VII of France and Pope Alexander III. After several changes mid-construction and the implementation of new technologies, it was finally completed in 1345.[38] Since then, it has inspired The Hunchback of Notre-Dame by Victor Hugo, played host to the cult of reason during the French revolution, and saw the crowning of Emperor Napoleon in 1803.[39]
The cathedral stands as an absolute triumph of French perseverance and opulence. The famous three-rose windows are enormous marvels of patience and planning. The south rose has eighty-four panels depicting the life of Christ and prominent biblical figures.[40] The church façade is defined by geometric simplicity and purity, while stunning detail is reserved for the arches that lead into the doors.
The west-facing facade of Notre-Dame de Paris before the 2019 fire. [41].
Courtesy of Peter Haas. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
An example of the mind-numbing detail that was included around each of the three arches. [42].
Courtesy of Chriskaridis. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
After the fire in 2019 that devastated much of the cathedral, reconstruction efforts began almost immediately. As of 2022, the cathedral has been stabilized, and work has begun on replacing the attic beams that were destroyed in the fire. There is still decades of work to be done to restore the cathedral to its former glory
Scaffolding around the cathedral as restoration efforts continue.
Courtesy of SiefkinDR, Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 International
Canterbury Cathedral, Canterbury England
Canterbury Cathedral in England is a wonderful example of English cathedral architecture. Most of the Romanesque structure was destroyed in a fire in 1174, leading to the church being rebuilt in the gothic style. In 1170, Thomas Becket, the most famous archbishop of the cathedral, was murdered—possibly on orders from King Henry II.[43] In 1540, the monastery was closed on the order of King Henry VIII during the establishment of the Church of England, and upkeep was taken up by the chapter of Canterbury. The church was damaged in the English civil war in 1640 and again during the second world war when Nazi Luftwaffe dropped incendiary bombs that destroyed the cathedral library. Today, the cathedral stands as a house of worship that has offered prayers daily for over fourteen hundred years.[44]
Courtesy of Antony McCallum. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Stained Glass
Stained glass has a way of inspiring awe and reverence in the viewer. While Islamic mosques also have stunning examples of stained glass like the Nasir-ol-Molk Mosque in Shiraz, Iran, in Europe, the art of crafting stained glass reached its apex in the high gothic period when massive works were custom-made for huge cathedral windows. This was only made possible by the new weight distribution of gothic architectural innovations. One of the few primary sources that describe this process in detail was written by a German Monk named Theophilus, who recorded his observations while studying glazers and artisans. In his book *On Diverse Arts, *he describes how makers would combine sand and wood ash, melt them into a liquid, then mix in ground metal to add color. Once the liquid-cooled, it became glass, which was arranged between strips of lead into the pattern the artist desired. Once the panel was complete, the artist inserted a putty to waterproof the glass, then installed an iron frame for stability; and the window was then mounted. If fine details were required, then the artist painted them on after the window was installed.[46]
This video shows how stained glass is made in the modern area inspired by medieval techniques.[47]
The north rose window of the Cathedrals Notre-Dame de Paris before the 2019 fire. [48].
Courtesy of Julie Anne Workman. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
The rose window of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes as seen from inside the chapel. [49].
Courtesy of DXR.
East end stained glass windows of the Sainte Chapelle Cathedral. [50].
Courtesy of Oldmanisold. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
South Oculus of the Canterbury Cathedral. [51].
Courtesy of Jules & Jenny. Creative Commons (BY-SA).
Depiction and details of an angel in the Chapel of Eyneburg, Belgium. [52] [53] [54].
Courtesy of Lusitana. Creative Commons (BY-SA). Arranged by Nicholas Allen
Works Cited
Footnotes
1. “Cathedral - New World Encyclopedia.”
2. Oldmanisold, English.
3. “Medieval Education and the Role of the Church | Encyclopedia.Com.”
4. author, Cours de Philosophie à Paris.
5. “Gothic Architecture.”
6. “File:Chartres 1.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons.”
7. Fletcher and Fletcher, A History of Architecture on the Comparative Method.
8. Fletcher and Fletcher.
9. seul, Français.
10. “Gothic Art -- Britannica Academic.”
11. Terbócs, Magyar.
12. DXR, English, March 8, 2014.
13. “Gothic Art -- Britannica Academic.”
14. “File:Coupe.Nef.Cathedrale.Amiens.Png - Wikimedia Commons.”
15. “Gothic Art -- Britannica Academic.”
16. “File:Coupe.Nef.Cathedrale.Amiens.Png - Wikimedia Commons.”
17. “BBC - History - British History in Depth.”
18. “BBC - History - British History in Depth.”
19. Lex Wilkinson, Cathedral Stone Masons.
20. Viollet-le-Duc, Deutsch.
21. International School History, How to Build a Cathedral - Method.
22. “BBC - History - British History in Depth.”
23. PHGCOM, Devil, Central Gate Notre Dame Paris.
24. National Geographic, Watch a Masterpiece Emerge from a Solid Block of Stone | Short Film Showcase.
25. Arriqui, Detalle Del Portico de La Puerta Principal de La Catedral de Amiens Que Repressenta El Juicio Final.
26. StPaulsLondon, The Work of a Stonemason at St Paul’s Cathedral.
27. “File:Catedral Amiens Detalle 1.JPG - Wikimedia Commons.”
28. “Exploring the Fantastic History of Gargoyles in Gothic Architecture.”
29. Colin, English.
30. “Ancient Megastructures.”
31. “Cathedral Building in the Middle Ages - Durham World Heritage Site.”
32. “BBC - History - British History in Depth.”
33. “File:Reconstruction of the Temple of Jerusalem.Jpg - Wikimedia Commons.”
34. Great Big Story, The Lone Man Building a Cathedral By Hand.
35. Centre, “Chartres Cathedral.”
36. Centre.
37. MathKnight, English.
38. “Notre-Dame de Paris.”
39. “Notre-Dame de Paris.”
40. “Rose Sud.”
41. i, English.
42. Chriskaridis, English.
43. House and Canterbury, “1,400 Years of History.”
44. House and Canterbury.
45. WyrdLight.com, English.
46. Cloisters, “Stained Glass in Medieval Europe | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art.”
47. How Its Made, How Its Made - 166 Stained Glass.
48. Workman, English.
49. DXR, English, March 8, 2014.
50. Oldmanisold, English.
51. UK, In the South Oculus, Fourteen Original Ornamental Panels Survive, the Remainder Is a Reconstruction of the Iconographic Scheme by the Younger George Austin, Based on the Remaining Glass in the Opposite Window.
52. User:Lusitana, English, April 30, 2006.
53. User:Lusitana, English, April 30, 2006.
54. User:Lusitana, English, April 30, 2006.
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———. English: The Rose Window of Sainte-Chapelle de Vincennes as Seen from inside the Chapel. March 8, 2014. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Rose_Window_of_Sainte-Chapelle_de_Vincennes,_Interior_View_140308_1.jpg
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seul, Apsis svg: de:Benutzer:Leonce49Cathedral schematic plan PNG: Lusitania, with alterations by TTaylorderivative work: Nemoi n’aime pas parler tout. Français : Plan d’une Basilique Au Sol ; Basé Sur Apsis.Svg Licenciée Sous GFDL Par Leonce49 et Inspiré de l’image Cathedral Schematic Plan.PNG Également Placé En GFDL Par Lusitania et TTaylor. January 29, 2010. Apsis.svg Cathedral schematic plan.PNG. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cathedral_schematic_plan_en_vectorial.svg
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———. English: Stained Glass (Detail) in the Chappel of Eyneburg, Belgium. April 30, 2006. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eyneburg_4.jpg
———. English: Stained Glass in the Chappel of Eyneburg, Belgium. April 30, 2006. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Eyneburg_2.JPG
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Workman, Zachi Evenor based on File:North rose window of Notre-Dame de Paris, Aug 2010 jpg by Julie Anne. English: Rayonnant Gothic Rose Window (North Transept), Notre-Dame de Paris Cathedral. August 22, 2010. Flickr: https://www.flickr.com/photos/zachievenor/34705711854, based on File:North rose window of Notre-Dame de Paris, Aug 2010.jpg. https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Gothic-Rayonnant_Rose-6.jpg
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